 Wheat field in Ukraine | |
 | |
| Continent | Europe |
|---|---|
| Region | Eastern Europe |
| Coordinates | 50°27′N30°30′E / 50.450°N 30.500°E /50.450; 30.500 |
| Area | Ranked 45th |
| • Total | 603,500 km2 (233,000 sq mi) |
| • Land | 96% |
| • Water | 4% |
| Coastline | 2,782 km (1,729 mi) |
| Borders | 4,558 km (2,832 mi) |
| Highest point | Hoverla 2,061 metres (6,762 ft) |
| Lowest point | Kuyalnik Estuary −5 metres (−16 ft) |
| Longest river | Dnieper 981 kilometres (610 mi) (within Ukraine) |
| Largest lake | Lake Yalpuh 149 km2 (57.53 sq mi) |
| Exclusive economic zone | 147,318 km2 (56,880 sq mi) |
Ukraine is thesecond-largest European country, afterRussia. Its various regions have diverse geographic features ranging from highlands to lowlands, as well as climatic range and a wide variety in hydrography. Most of the country lies within theEast European Plain.
Lying between latitudes44° and53° N, and longitudes22° and41° E, Ukraine covers an area of 603,628 square kilometres (233,062 sq mi), with a coastline of 2,782 kilometres (1,729 mi).[1]
The landscape of Ukraine consists mostly of fertilesteppes[2] and plateaus, crossed by rivers such as theDnieper,Siverskyi Donets,Dniester and theSouthern Bug as they flow south into theBlack Sea and the smallerSea of Azov. To the southwest, thedelta of theDanube forms the border withRomania. The country's only mountains are theCarpathian Mountains in the west, of which the highest isHoverla at 2,061 metres (6,762 ft), and theCrimean Mountains, in the extreme south along the coast.[3]
Ukraine also has a number of highland regions such as theVolyn-Podillia Upland (in the west) and theDnieper Upland (on the right bank of the Dnieper). To the east there are the south-western spurs of theCentral Russian Upland, over which runs the border with the Russia. Near theSea of Azov can be found theDonets Ridge and theAzov Upland. Thesnow melt from the mountains feeds the rivers and theirwaterfalls.
Significant natural resources in Ukraine includelithium,[4]natural gas,[5]kaolin,[5]timber,[6] and an abundance ofarable land. Despite this, the country faces a number of major environmental issues such as inadequate supplies of potable water, air andwater pollution,deforestation, and radioactive contamination in the north-east from the1986 accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant.
Ukraine is located inEastern Europe: lying on the northern shores of theBlack Sea and theSea of Azov. The country bordersBelarus in the north,Poland,Slovakia andHungary in the west,Moldova andRomania in the south-west, andRussia in the east.[7]
The total geographic area of Ukraine is 603,700 square kilometers (233,100 sq mi). Ukraine has anExclusive Economic Zone of 147,318 km2 (56,880 sq mi) in theBlack Sea.[7]
The land border of Ukraine totals 6,993 kilometers (4,345 mi).[8] The border lengths with each country are: Belarus 891 kilometers (554 mi)[failed verification], Hungary 103 kilometers (64 mi)[failed verification], Moldova 939 kilometers (583 mi)[failed verification], Poland 428 kilometers (266 mi)[failed verification], Romania 169 kilometers (105 mi) on the south and 362 kilometers (225 mi) on the west,[failed verification] Russia 1,974 kilometers (1,227 mi), and Slovakia 90 kilometers (56 mi)[failed verification]. Ukraine is also bordered by 3,783 kilometers (2,351 mi) of coastline.[failed verification] The border with Russia, part of which runs through the Sea of Azov, is the country's longest border.[9]
The village ofVel'ké Slemence is split betweenSlovakia and Ukraine.[10]
Most of its territory lies within theGreat European Plain, while parts of western regions and southern regions lay within theAlpine system. In general Ukraine comprises two differentbiomes:mixed forest towards the middle of the continent, andsteppe towards the Black Sea littoral. Major provinces include,Polesian Lowland,Dnieper Lowland, Volhynia-Podolie Plateau, Black Sea-Azov Lowland, Donets-Azov Plateau,Central Russian Upland,Carpathians, andPannonian Basin.
The western regions feature an alpine-like section ofCarpathian Mountains, the Eastern Carpathians that stretches across Poland, Ukraine and Romania. The highest peak isMount Hoverla, which at 2,061 meters (6,762 ft)above sea level is the highest point in the country. Mountains are limited to the west, the southern tip of Ukraine on theSea of Azov. The western region has theCarpathian Mountains, and some eroded mountains from theDonets Ridge are in the east near the Sea of Azov.
Most of Ukraine's area is taken up by thesteppe-like region just north of theBlack Sea. Most of Ukraine consists of fertile plains (orsteppes) andplateaus. In terms of land use, 58% of Ukraine is considered arable land; 2% is used for permanent crops, 13% for permanent pastures, 18% is forests and woodland, and 9% is other.
Most of Ukraine consists of regular plains with an average heightabove sea level being 175 metres (574 ft). It is surrounded by mountains to its west and extreme south. Wide spaces of the country's plains are located in the south-western part of theEast European Plain. The plains have numerous highlands and lowlands caused by the uneven crystallized base of theEast European craton. The highlands are characterized byPrecambrianbasement rocks from theUkrainian Shield.
Plains are considered elevations of no more than 0–600 m (0–1,969 ft) among which there are recognized lowlands (plains) and uplands (plateaus, ridges, hill ridges).
From northwest to southeast the soils of Ukraine may be divided into three major aggregations:[11]
As much as two-thirds of the country's surface land consists of black earth, a resource that has made Ukraine one of the most fertile regions in the world and well known as a "breadbasket".[12] These soils may be divided into three broad groups:
Interspersed in various uplands and along the northern and western perimeters of the deep chernozems are mixtures of gray forest soils and podzolized black-earth soils, which together occupy much of Ukraine's remaining area. All these soils are very fertile when sufficient water is available. However, their intensive cultivation, especially on steep slopes, has led to widespread soil erosion and gullying.
The smallest proportion of the soil cover consists of the chestnut soils of the southern and eastern regions. They become increasingly salinized to the south as they approach the Black Sea.[11]
The territory of Ukraine is bordered by the waters of theBlack Sea and theSea of Azov. More than 95% of the rivers are part of those two seas'drainage basins. A few rivers are part of theBaltic Sea basin. There are seven major rivers in Ukraine:Desna,Dnipro,Dnister,Danube,Prypiat,Siverian Donets, andSouthern Buh.[13]
| Location | July (°C) | July (°F) | January (°C) | January (°F) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kyiv | 27/17 | 80/62 | −1/−6 | 31/22 |
| Kharkiv | 27/17 | 81/62 | −2/−7 | 28/20 |
| Dnipro | 29/17 | 84/63 | −1/−6 | 30/21 |
| Odesa | 28/19 | 82/66 | 2/−3 | 36/27 |
| Donetsk | 27/16 | 81/61 | −1/−6 | 29/20 |
| Zaporizhzhia | 28/16 | 83/61 | −0/−5 | 31/21 |
| Lviv | 24/13 | 75/56 | −1/−8 | 32/21 |
Ukraine is firmly in the mid-latitudes, and generally has acontinental climate, except for its southern coasts, which featurecold semi-arid andhumid subtropical climates.[18] Average annual temperatures range from 5.5–7 °C (41.9–44.6 °F) in the north, to 11–13 °C (51.8–55.4 °F) in the south.[19]Precipitation is disproportionately distributed; it is highest in the west and north and lowest in the east and southeast.[19] Western Ukraine, particularly in the Carpathian Mountains, receives around 1,200 millimetres (47.2 in) of precipitation annually, while Crimea and the coastal areas of the Black Sea receive around 400 millimetres (15.7 in).[19]
Water availability from the major river basins is expected to decrease, especially in summer. This poses risks to the agricultural sector.[20] The negative impacts ofclimate change on agriculture are mostly felt in the south of the country, which has asteppe climate. In the north, some crops may be able to benefit from a longer growing season.[21] TheWorld Bank has stated that Ukraine is highlyvulnerable to climate change.[22]
| Climate data forKyiv (1991–2020, extremes 1881–present) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 13.2 (55.8) | 17.3 (63.1) | 22.4 (72.3) | 30.2 (86.4) | 33.6 (92.5) | 35.5 (95.9) | 39.4 (102.9) | 39.3 (102.7) | 35.7 (96.3) | 27.9 (82.2) | 23.2 (73.8) | 15.2 (59.4) | 39.4 (102.9) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | −0.8 (30.6) | 0.7 (33.3) | 6.5 (43.7) | 15.0 (59.0) | 21.1 (70.0) | 24.6 (76.3) | 26.5 (79.7) | 25.9 (78.6) | 20.0 (68.0) | 12.9 (55.2) | 5.3 (41.5) | 0.5 (32.9) | 13.2 (55.8) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | −3.2 (26.2) | −2.3 (27.9) | 2.5 (36.5) | 10.0 (50.0) | 15.8 (60.4) | 19.5 (67.1) | 21.3 (70.3) | 20.5 (68.9) | 14.9 (58.8) | 8.6 (47.5) | 2.6 (36.7) | −1.8 (28.8) | 9.0 (48.2) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −5.5 (22.1) | −5.0 (23.0) | −0.8 (30.6) | 5.7 (42.3) | 10.9 (51.6) | 14.8 (58.6) | 16.7 (62.1) | 15.7 (60.3) | 10.6 (51.1) | 5.1 (41.2) | 0.4 (32.7) | −3.9 (25.0) | 5.4 (41.7) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −31.1 (−24.0) | −32.2 (−26.0) | −24.9 (−12.8) | −10.4 (13.3) | −2.4 (27.7) | 2.5 (36.5) | 5.8 (42.4) | 3.3 (37.9) | −2.9 (26.8) | −17.8 (0.0) | −21.9 (−7.4) | −30.0 (−22.0) | −32.2 (−26.0) |
| Averageprecipitation mm (inches) | 38 (1.5) | 40 (1.6) | 40 (1.6) | 42 (1.7) | 65 (2.6) | 73 (2.9) | 68 (2.7) | 56 (2.2) | 57 (2.2) | 46 (1.8) | 46 (1.8) | 47 (1.9) | 618 (24.3) |
| Average extreme snow depth cm (inches) | 9 (3.5) | 11 (4.3) | 7 (2.8) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 2 (0.8) | 5 (2.0) | 11 (4.3) |
| Average rainy days | 8 | 7 | 9 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 14 | 11 | 14 | 12 | 12 | 9 | 138 |
| Average snowy days | 17 | 17 | 10 | 2 | 0.2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.03 | 2 | 9 | 16 | 73 |
| Averagerelative humidity (%) | 82.7 | 80.1 | 74.0 | 64.3 | 62.0 | 67.5 | 68.3 | 66.9 | 73.5 | 77.4 | 84.6 | 85.6 | 73.9 |
| Mean monthlysunshine hours | 42 | 64 | 112 | 162 | 257 | 273 | 287 | 252 | 189 | 123 | 51 | 31 | 1,843 |
| Averageultraviolet index | 1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 6 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 3 |
| Source 1: Pogoda.ru.net,[23] Central Observatory for Geophysics (extremes),[24][25]World Meteorological Organization (humidity 1981–2010)[26] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2:Danish Meteorological Institute (sun, 1931–1960)[27] and Weather Atlas[28] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data forKharkiv (1991−2020, extremes 1936–present) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 11.1 (52.0) | 14.6 (58.3) | 21.8 (71.2) | 30.5 (86.9) | 34.5 (94.1) | 39.8 (103.6) | 38.4 (101.1) | 39.8 (103.6) | 34.7 (94.5) | 29.3 (84.7) | 20.3 (68.5) | 13.4 (56.1) | 39.8 (103.6) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | −2.1 (28.2) | −0.8 (30.6) | 5.2 (41.4) | 14.7 (58.5) | 21.4 (70.5) | 25.2 (77.4) | 27.4 (81.3) | 26.8 (80.2) | 20.5 (68.9) | 12.6 (54.7) | 4.3 (39.7) | −0.7 (30.7) | 12.9 (55.2) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | −4.5 (23.9) | −3.8 (25.2) | 1.4 (34.5) | 9.7 (49.5) | 16.1 (61.0) | 20.0 (68.0) | 22.0 (71.6) | 21.1 (70.0) | 15.1 (59.2) | 8.2 (46.8) | 1.6 (34.9) | −2.9 (26.8) | 8.7 (47.7) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −6.8 (19.8) | −6.6 (20.1) | −1.9 (28.6) | 4.8 (40.6) | 10.7 (51.3) | 14.7 (58.5) | 16.6 (61.9) | 15.4 (59.7) | 10.2 (50.4) | 4.4 (39.9) | −0.8 (30.6) | −5.1 (22.8) | 4.6 (40.3) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −35.6 (−32.1) | −29.8 (−21.6) | −32.2 (−26.0) | −11.4 (11.5) | −1.9 (28.6) | 2.2 (36.0) | 5.7 (42.3) | 2.2 (36.0) | −2.9 (26.8) | −9.1 (15.6) | −20.9 (−5.6) | −30.8 (−23.4) | −35.6 (−32.1) |
| Averageprecipitation mm (inches) | 37 (1.5) | 33 (1.3) | 36 (1.4) | 32 (1.3) | 54 (2.1) | 58 (2.3) | 63 (2.5) | 39 (1.5) | 44 (1.7) | 44 (1.7) | 39 (1.5) | 40 (1.6) | 519 (20.4) |
| Average extreme snow depth cm (inches) | 8 (3.1) | 11 (4.3) | 8 (3.1) | 1 (0.4) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 1 (0.4) | 4 (1.6) | 11 (4.3) |
| Average rainy days | 10 | 8 | 10 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 13 | 10 | 12 | 13 | 13 | 12 | 143 |
| Average snowy days | 19 | 18 | 12 | 2 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.03 | 2 | 9 | 18 | 80 |
| Averagerelative humidity (%) | 85.6 | 83.0 | 77.3 | 65.7 | 60.9 | 65.2 | 65.3 | 62.9 | 70.2 | 77.6 | 85.7 | 86.5 | 73.8 |
| Mean monthlysunshine hours | 41.5 | 63.3 | 123.5 | 166.7 | 252.9 | 266.6 | 278.0 | 262.4 | 176.6 | 112.8 | 51.0 | 31.4 | 1,826.7 |
| Source 1: Pogoda.ru.net[29] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2:World Meteorological Organization (humidity and sun 1981–2010)[30] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data forDnipro (1991–2020, extremes 1948–present) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 12.3 (54.1) | 17.5 (63.5) | 24.1 (75.4) | 31.8 (89.2) | 36.1 (97.0) | 37.8 (100.0) | 39.8 (103.6) | 40.9 (105.6) | 36.5 (97.7) | 32.6 (90.7) | 20.6 (69.1) | 13.7 (56.7) | 40.9 (105.6) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | −0.9 (30.4) | 0.6 (33.1) | 7.1 (44.8) | 16.0 (60.8) | 22.7 (72.9) | 26.6 (79.9) | 29.1 (84.4) | 28.7 (83.7) | 22.4 (72.3) | 14.4 (57.9) | 5.8 (42.4) | 0.6 (33.1) | 14.4 (57.9) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | −3.6 (25.5) | −2.8 (27.0) | 2.5 (36.5) | 10.3 (50.5) | 16.5 (61.7) | 20.5 (68.9) | 22.7 (72.9) | 22.1 (71.8) | 16.2 (61.2) | 9.2 (48.6) | 2.6 (36.7) | −1.9 (28.6) | 9.5 (49.1) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −6.1 (21.0) | −5.8 (21.6) | −1.2 (29.8) | 5.1 (41.2) | 10.9 (51.6) | 15.1 (59.2) | 17.1 (62.8) | 16.3 (61.3) | 11.0 (51.8) | 5.2 (41.4) | −0.1 (31.8) | −4.2 (24.4) | 5.3 (41.5) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −30.0 (−22.0) | −27.8 (−18.0) | −19.2 (−2.6) | −8.0 (17.6) | −2.4 (27.7) | 3.9 (39.0) | 5.9 (42.6) | 3.9 (39.0) | −3.0 (26.6) | −8.0 (17.6) | −17.9 (−0.2) | −27.8 (−18.0) | −30.0 (−22.0) |
| Averageprecipitation mm (inches) | 50 (2.0) | 43 (1.7) | 51 (2.0) | 39 (1.5) | 51 (2.0) | 64 (2.5) | 55 (2.2) | 45 (1.8) | 42 (1.7) | 39 (1.5) | 44 (1.7) | 46 (1.8) | 569 (22.4) |
| Average extreme snow depth cm (inches) | 7 (2.8) | 10 (3.9) | 5 (2.0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 1 (0.4) | 4 (1.6) | 10 (3.9) |
| Average rainy days | 9 | 8 | 11 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 12 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 11 | 132 |
| Average snowy days | 16 | 15 | 9 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 7 | 15 | 64 |
| Averagerelative humidity (%) | 87.7 | 84.6 | 79.2 | 66.8 | 62.2 | 66.2 | 64.7 | 62.4 | 69.5 | 77.2 | 86.5 | 88.3 | 74.6 |
| Mean monthlysunshine hours | 45.2 | 70.7 | 126.3 | 179.0 | 264.9 | 269.5 | 299.0 | 277.5 | 197.3 | 132.1 | 58.2 | 34.4 | 1,954.1 |
| Source 1: Pogoda.ru.net[31] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2:World Meteorological Organization (humidity and sun 1981–2010)[32] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data forOdesa (1991–2020, extremes 1894–present) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 15.7 (60.3) | 19.2 (66.6) | 24.1 (75.4) | 29.4 (84.9) | 33.2 (91.8) | 37.2 (99.0) | 39.3 (102.7) | 38.0 (100.4) | 35.4 (95.7) | 30.5 (86.9) | 26.0 (78.8) | 16.9 (62.4) | 39.3 (102.7) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 2.3 (36.1) | 3.4 (38.1) | 7.7 (45.9) | 13.6 (56.5) | 20.3 (68.5) | 25.1 (77.2) | 27.9 (82.2) | 27.7 (81.9) | 21.8 (71.2) | 15.3 (59.5) | 9.1 (48.4) | 4.2 (39.6) | 14.9 (58.8) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | −0.4 (31.3) | 0.4 (32.7) | 4.3 (39.7) | 10.0 (50.0) | 16.2 (61.2) | 20.8 (69.4) | 23.4 (74.1) | 23.1 (73.6) | 17.8 (64.0) | 12.0 (53.6) | 6.3 (43.3) | 1.5 (34.7) | 11.3 (52.3) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −2.7 (27.1) | −2.1 (28.2) | 1.6 (34.9) | 6.9 (44.4) | 12.6 (54.7) | 16.9 (62.4) | 19.1 (66.4) | 18.5 (65.3) | 14.0 (57.2) | 8.9 (48.0) | 3.9 (39.0) | −0.8 (30.6) | 8.1 (46.6) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −26.2 (−15.2) | −28.0 (−18.4) | −16.0 (3.2) | −5.9 (21.4) | 0.3 (32.5) | 5.2 (41.4) | 7.5 (45.5) | 7.9 (46.2) | −0.8 (30.6) | −13.3 (8.1) | −14.6 (5.7) | −19.6 (−3.3) | −28.0 (−18.4) |
| Averageprecipitation mm (inches) | 43 (1.7) | 35 (1.4) | 35 (1.4) | 28 (1.1) | 39 (1.5) | 47 (1.9) | 45 (1.8) | 40 (1.6) | 44 (1.7) | 37 (1.5) | 39 (1.5) | 38 (1.5) | 470 (18.5) |
| Average extreme snow depth cm (inches) | 2 (0.8) | 2 (0.8) | 1 (0.4) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 1 (0.4) | 2 (0.8) |
| Average rainy days | 9 | 7 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 10 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 13 | 10 | 122 |
| Average snowy days | 11 | 10 | 6 | 0.4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2 | 4 | 9 | 41 |
| Averagerelative humidity (%) | 82.5 | 80.7 | 78.4 | 74.5 | 71.0 | 70.6 | 66.0 | 65.4 | 71.8 | 77.1 | 81.9 | 83.6 | 75.3 |
| Mean monthlysunshine hours | 63.2 | 91.6 | 142.2 | 199.5 | 292.5 | 307.5 | 332.9 | 313.1 | 234.6 | 164.7 | 73.0 | 57.4 | 2,272.2 |
| Source 1: Pogoda.ru[33] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2:World Meteorological Organization (humidity and sun 1981–2010)[34] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data forYalta (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1948–present) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 17.8 (64.0) | 20.2 (68.4) | 27.8 (82.0) | 28.5 (83.3) | 33.0 (91.4) | 35.0 (95.0) | 39.1 (102.4) | 39.1 (102.4) | 33.2 (91.8) | 31.5 (88.7) | 25.2 (77.4) | 22.0 (71.6) | 39.1 (102.4) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 7.4 (45.3) | 7.7 (45.9) | 10.4 (50.7) | 14.8 (58.6) | 20.5 (68.9) | 25.7 (78.3) | 29.1 (84.4) | 29.4 (84.9) | 24.2 (75.6) | 18.3 (64.9) | 12.8 (55.0) | 8.9 (48.0) | 17.4 (63.3) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 4.6 (40.3) | 4.6 (40.3) | 6.8 (44.2) | 11.1 (52.0) | 16.4 (61.5) | 21.6 (70.9) | 24.8 (76.6) | 25.0 (77.0) | 20.1 (68.2) | 14.6 (58.3) | 9.7 (49.5) | 6.3 (43.3) | 13.8 (56.8) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 2.5 (36.5) | 2.2 (36.0) | 4.1 (39.4) | 8.1 (46.6) | 13.1 (55.6) | 18.1 (64.6) | 21.1 (70.0) | 21.5 (70.7) | 16.8 (62.2) | 11.7 (53.1) | 7.2 (45.0) | 4.1 (39.4) | 10.9 (51.6) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −12.2 (10.0) | −12.3 (9.9) | −7.3 (18.9) | −3.8 (25.2) | 2.8 (37.0) | 7.8 (46.0) | 12.4 (54.3) | 10.0 (50.0) | 3.9 (39.0) | −1.1 (30.0) | −8.9 (16.0) | −7.4 (18.7) | −12.3 (9.9) |
| Averageprecipitation mm (inches) | 76 (3.0) | 56 (2.2) | 48 (1.9) | 29 (1.1) | 36 (1.4) | 35 (1.4) | 32 (1.3) | 43 (1.7) | 43 (1.7) | 52 (2.0) | 57 (2.2) | 84 (3.3) | 591 (23.3) |
| Average extreme snow depth cm (inches) | 1 (0.4) | 1 (0.4) | 1 (0.4) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 1 (0.4) |
| Average rainy days | 14 | 12 | 13 | 12 | 11 | 10 | 8 | 7 | 10 | 10 | 12 | 15 | 134 |
| Average snowy days | 6 | 6 | 4 | 0.2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 20 |
| Averagerelative humidity (%) | 75.7 | 73.6 | 72.7 | 72.0 | 69.7 | 67.7 | 61.9 | 61.5 | 65.4 | 71.5 | 74.4 | 75.1 | 70.1 |
| Mean monthlysunshine hours | 68.6 | 85.1 | 133.3 | 174.9 | 239.2 | 273.2 | 308.1 | 280.6 | 216.2 | 145.1 | 89.3 | 63.2 | 2,076.8 |
| Source 1: Pogoda.ru.net[35] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2:World Meteorological Organization (humidity and sun 1981–2010)[36] | |||||||||||||
Significant natural resources in Ukraine include: iron ore, manganese,natural gas,[37] titanium, kaolin, uranium, and arable land.[5][38]
Ukrainehas many environmental issues.[39][40] Some regions lack adequate supplies of potable water.[41] Air and water pollution affects the country, as well as deforestation, and radiation contamination in the northeast stemming from the1986 accident at theChernobyl Nuclear Power Plant.[42]
Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement...
"The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can.The Australian Academy of Science, for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario.Climate Action Tracker predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C.
| Countries |  | |
|---|---|---|
| Cities | ||
| Tributaries | ||
| Canals | ||
| See also | ||
