Loktak Lake (freshwater) 287 to 500 km2 (111 to 193 sq mi) Chilika Lake (brackish water) 1,100 km2 (420 sq mi)
Exclusive economic zone
2,305,143 km2 (890,021 sq mi)
India is situated north of the equator between 8°4' north (themainland) to 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' east to 97°25' east longitude.[2] It is theseventh-largest country in the world, with a total area of 3,287,263 square kilometres (1,269,219 sq mi).[3][4][5] India measures 3,214 km (1,997 mi) from north to south and 2,933 km (1,822 mi) from east to west. It has a land frontier of 15,200 km (9,445 mi) and a coastline of 7,516.6 km (4,671 mi).[1]
TheGanges is the longest river originating in India. TheGanges–Brahmaputra system occupies most of northern, central, and eastern India, while theDeccan Plateau occupies most of southern India.Kangchenjunga, in the Indian state ofSikkim, is the highest point in India at 8,586 m (28,169 ft) and theworld's third highest peak. The climate across India ranges from equatorial in the far south, toalpine andtundra in the upper regions of the Himalayas. Geologically,India lies on theIndian Plate, the northern part of theIndo-Australian Plate.
Proposed model of the collision of the Indian subcontinent with Asia to form the Himalayas. The area in green represents the hypotheticalsubducted and underthrust "Greater India"
India is situated entirely on theIndian Plate, a majortectonic plate that was formed when it split off from the ancient continentGondwanaland (ancient landmass, consisting of the southern part of the supercontinent ofPangea). TheIndo-Australian plate is subdivided into the Indian andAustralian plates. About 90 million years ago, during the lateCretaceous Period, the Indian Plate began moving north at about 15 cm/year (6 in/yr).[8] About 50 to 55 million years ago, in theEocene Epoch of theCenozoic Era, the plate collided with Asia after covering a distance of 2,000 to 3,000 km (1,243 to 1,864 mi), having moved faster than any other known plate. In 2007, German geologists determined that the Indian Plate was able to move so quickly because it is only half as thick as the other plates which formerly constituted Gondwanaland.[9] The collision with theEurasian Plate along the modern border between India and Nepal formed theorogenic belt that created theTibetan Plateau and theHimalayas. As of 2009[update], the Indian Plate is moving northeast at 5 cm/yr (2 in/yr), while theEurasian Plate is moving north at only 2 cm/yr (0.8 in/yr). India is thus referred to as the "fastest continent".[9] This is causing the Eurasian Plate to deform, and the Indian Plate to compress at a rate of 4 cm/yr (1.6 in/yr).
India is divided into 28 States (further subdivided intodistricts) and 8union territories including the National capital territory (i.e.,Delhi).India's borders run a total length of 15,200 km (9,400 mi).[1][10]
Its borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh were delineated according to theRadcliffe Line, which was created in 1947 duringPartition of India. Its western border with Pakistan extends up to 3,323 km (2,065 mi), dividing thePunjab region and running along the boundaries of the Thar Desert and theRann of Kutch.[1] This border runs along the Indian states and union territories ofLadakh,Jammu and Kashmir,Punjab,Rajasthan, andGujarat.[11] Both nations delineated aLine of Control (LoC) to serve as the informal boundary between the Indian and Pakistan-administered areas of theKashmir region. India claims the whole of the former princely state ofJammu and Kashmir, which includes areas now administered by Pakistan and China, which according to India are illegally occupied areas.[1]
India's border with Bangladesh runs 4,096.70 km (2,545.57 mi).[1]West Bengal,Assam,Meghalaya,Tripura andMizoram are the states which share the border with Bangladesh.[12] Before 2015, there were 92 enclaves of Bangladesh on Indian soil and 106 enclaves of India were on Bangladeshi soil.[13] Theseenclaves were eventually exchanged in order to simplify the border.[14] After the exchange, India lost roughly 40 km2 (9,900 acres) to Bangladesh.[15]
An arc of mountains consisting of the Himalayas,Hindu Kush, andPatkai ranges define the northern frontiers of the Indian subcontinent.[20] These were formed by theongoing tectonic plates collision of the Indian andEurasian plates. The mountains in these ranges include some of the world's tallest mountains which act as a barrier to cold polar winds. They also facilitate themonsoon winds which in turn influence the climate in India. Rivers originating in these mountains flow through the fertile Indo–Gangetic plains. These mountains form the boundary between twobiogeographic realms: thetemperatePalearctic realm that covers most of Eurasia, and the tropical and subtropicalIndomalayan realm which includes South Asia,Southeast Asia and Indonesia.[citation needed]
The Himalayas in India extend fromLadakh in the north to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the east. Several Himalayanpeaks in India rise above 7,000 m (23,000 ft), includingKanchenjunga (8,598 m (28,209 ft)) on theSikkim–Nepal border, andNanda Devi (7,816 m (25,643 ft)) in theGarhwal Himalayas of Uttarakhand. Thesnow line ranges between 6,000 m (20,000 ft) in Sikkim to around 3,000 m (9,800 ft) in Ladakh. The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigidkatabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, northern India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot.[citation needed]
TheKarakoram range runs through Ladakh. The range is about 500 km (310 mi) in length and the most heavilyglaciated part of the world outside of the polar regions. TheSiachen Glacier at 76 km (47 mi) ranks as the world's second longest glacier outside the polar regions.[21] The southern boundary of the Karakoram is formed by theIndus andShyok rivers, which separate the range from the northwestern end of the Himalayas.
ThePatkai, or Purvanchal, are situated near India's eastern border with Burma. They were created by the same tectonic processes which led to the formation of the Himalayas. The physical features of the Patkai mountains are conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys. The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as the Himalayas. There are three hill ranges that come under the Patkai: the Patkai–Bum, theGaro–Khasi–Jaintia and theLushai hills. The Garo–Khasi range lies in Meghalaya.Mawsynram, a village nearCherrapunji lying on thewindward side of these hills, has the distinction of being the wettest place in the world, receiving the highest annual rainfall.[22]
This is a large region of theIndian subcontinent located between theWestern Ghats and theEastern Ghats, and is loosely defined as the peninsular region between these ranges that is south of theNarmada River.Having once constituted a segment of the ancient continent ofGondwanaland, this land is the oldest and most stable in India.
Mountain ranges (clockwise from top-left)
Aravali Range is the oldest mountain range in India, running across Rajasthan from northeast to southwest direction, extending approximately 800 km (500 mi).[23] The northern end of the range continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges intoHaryana, ending nearDelhi. The highest peak in this range isGuru Shikhar atMount Abu, rising to 1,722 m (5,650 ft), lying near the border with Gujarat.[24] The Aravali Range is the eroded stub of an ancientfold mountain system.[25] The range rose in aPrecambrian event called the Aravali–Delhiorogen. The range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indiancraton, theMarwar segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment to the southeast.
Vindhya range, lies north of Satpura range and east of Aravali range, runs across most of central India, extending 1,050 km (650 mi).[26] The average elevation of these hills is from 300 to 600 m (980 to 1,970 ft) and rarely goes above 700 metres (2,300 ft).[26] They are believed to have been formed by the wastes created by the weathering of the ancient Aravali mountains.[27] Geographically, it separatesNorthern India fromSouthern India. The western end of the range lies in eastern Gujarat, near its border with Madhya Pradesh, and runs east and north, almost meeting the Ganges atMirzapur.
Satpura Range, lies south of Vindhya range and east of Aravali range, begins in eastern Gujarat near the Arabian Sea coast and runs east acrossMaharashtra,Madhya Pradesh andChhattisgarh. It extends 900 km (560 mi) with many peaks rising above 1,000 m (3,300 ft).[26] It is triangular in shape, with its apex atRatnapuri and the two sides being parallel to theTapti andNarmada rivers.[28] It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range, which lies to the north, and these two east–west ranges divide the Indo–Gangetic plain from the Deccan Plateau located north of River Narmada.
Plateaus (clockwise from top-left)
Malwa Plateau is spread across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. The average elevation of the Malwa plateau is 500 metres, and the landscape generally slopes towards the north. Most of the region is drained by theChambal River and its tributaries; the western part is drained by the upper reaches of theMahi River.
Chhota Nagpur Plateau is situated in eastern India, covering much of Jharkhand and adjacent parts of Odisha, Bihar and Chhattisgarh. Its total area is approximately 65,000 km2 (25,000 sq mi) and is made up of three smaller plateaus—the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Kodarma plateaus. The Ranchi plateau is the largest, with an average elevation of 700 m (2,300 ft). Much of the plateau is forested, covered by theChhota Nagpur dry deciduous forests. Vast reserves of metal ores andcoal have been found in the Chota Nagpur plateau.Southern Garanulite terrain: Covers South India especiallyTamil Nadu excluding western and eastern ghats.
Deccan Plateau, also called Deccan Trapps, is a large triangular plateau, bounded by the Vindhyas to the north and flanked by the Eastern and Western Ghats. The Deccan covers a total area of 1.9 million km2 (730,000 sq mi). It is mostly flat, with elevations ranging from 300 to 600 m (980 to 1,970 ft). The average elevation of the plateau is 2,000 feet (610 m) above sea level. The surface slopes from 3,000 feet (910 m) in the west to 1,500 feet (460 m) in the east.[29] It slopes gently from west to east and gives rise to several peninsular rivers such as theGodavari, theKrishna, theKaveri and theMahanadi which drain into the Bay of Bengal. This region is mostly semi-arid as it lies on the leeward side of both Ghats. Much of the Deccan is covered by thorn scrub forest scattered with small regions ofdeciduous broadleaf forest. Climate in the Deccan ranges from hot summers to mild winters.
Kutch Kathiawar plateau is located inGujarat state. TheKathiawar peninsula in western Gujarat is bounded by the Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Khambat. The natural vegetation in most of the peninsula isxeric scrub, part of theNorthwestern thorn scrub forests ecoregion.
The wordghati (Hindi:घाटी) means valley.[30] InMarathi, Hindi,Gujarati andKannada,ghat is a term used to identify a difficult passage over a mountain.[31] One such passage is theBhor Ghat that connects the townsKhopoli andKhandala, onNH 4 about 80 kilometres (50 mi) north ofMumbai.Charmadi Ghat of Karnataka is also notable. In many cases, the term is used to refer to a mountain range itself, as in theWestern Ghats andEastern Ghats. 'Ghattam' in Malayalam also refers to mountain ranges when used with the name of the ranges being addressed (e.g., paschima ghattam for Western Ghats), while the passage road would be called a 'churam'.Eastern Ghats on the east coast of India andWestern Ghats on the west coast of India are the largest ghats in pensular India.[32]
Western Ghats also known asSahyadri (Benevolent Mountains) run along the western edge of India'sDeccan Plateau and separate it from a narrow coastal plain along theArabian Sea. The range covers an area of 140,000 km2 in a stretch of 1,600 km (990 mi) parallel to the western coast of theIndianpeninsula,[28] from south of theTapti River near the Gujarat–Maharashtra border and acrossKerala,Tamil Nadu,Karnataka,Goa,Maharashtra andGujarat. to the southern tip of the Deccan peninsula.[33] The average elevation is around 1,000 m (3,300 ft).[28]Anai Mudi in theAnaimalai Hills 2,695 m (8,842 ft) in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats.[34] It is aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site and is one of the eight "hottest hot-spots" of biological diversity in the world.[35][36] It is sometimes called the GreatEscarpment of India.[37] It is a biodiversity hotspot that contains a large proportion of the country's flora and fauna; many of which are only found here and nowhere else in the world.[38] According toUNESCO, Western Ghats are older than Himalayan mountains. It also influences Indian monsoon weather patterns by intercepting the rain-laden monsoon winds that sweep in from the south-west during late summer.[33] A total of thirty-nine properties including national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserve forests were designated as world heritage sites - twenty inKerala, ten inKarnataka, five inTamil Nadu and four inMaharashtra.[39][40]Ghati people, literally means thepeople of hills or ghats (valleys), is anexonym used for the marathi people specially those from the villages inWestern Ghats, often in pejorative terms.[41][42][43]
Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of mountains alongIndia's eastern coast, which have been eroded and quadrisected by the four major rivers of southern India, theMahanadi, Godavari,Krishna, andKaveri.[44] These mountains extend from West Bengal toOdisha throughAndhra Pradesh toTamil Nadu in the south passing some parts ofKarnataka and in theWayanad region of Kerala. Parts of thecoastal plains, including theCoromandel Coast region, lie between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.Though not as tall as the Western Ghats, some of its peaks are over 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in height.[28] TheNilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu lies at the junction of the Eastern and Western Ghats.Arma Konda (1,690 m (5,540 ft)) in Andhra Pradesh is the tallest peak in Eastern Ghats.[45] The Eastern Ghats are older than the Western Ghats, and have a complex geologic history related to the assembly and breakup of the ancientsupercontinent ofRodinia and the assembly of theGondwana supercontinent. The Eastern Ghats are made up ofcharnockites,granitegneiss,khondalites,metamorphicgneisses andquartzite rock formations. The structure of the Eastern Ghats includesthrusts andstrike-slip faults[46] all along its range.Limestone,bauxite andiron ore are found in the Eastern Ghats hill ranges.
Indo-Gangetic plain
Extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain across South AsiaMany areas remain flooded during the heavy rains brought bymonsoon in the Indian state ofWest Bengal.
The Indo-Gangetic[47] plains, also known as theGreat Plains are largealluvial plains dominated by three main rivers, theIndus,Ganges, andBrahmaputra. They run parallel to the Himalayas, fromJammu and Kashmir in the west toAssam in the east, drain most of northern and eastern India and extend into Pakistan. The plains encompass an area of 700,000 km2 (270,000 sq mi). The major rivers in this region are the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra along with their main tributaries—Yamuna,Chambal,Gomti,Ghaghara,Kosi,Sutlej,Ravi,Beas,Chenab, andTista—as well as the rivers of theGanges Delta, such as theMeghna.
The great plains are sometimes classified into four divisions:
TheBhabar belt is adjacent to the foothills of the Himalayas and consists of boulders and pebbles which have been carried down by streams. As theporosity of this belt is very high, the streams flow underground. The Bhabar is generally narrow with its width varying between 6 and 15 km (3.7 and 9.3 mi).
TheTarai belt lies south of the adjacent Bhabar region and is composed of newer alluvium. The underground streams reappear in this region. The region is excessively moist and thickly forested. It also receives heavy rainfall throughout the year and is populated with a variety of wildlife.
TheBangar belt consists of older alluvium and forms the alluvial terrace of the flood plains. In the Gangetic plains, it has a low upland covered by laterite deposits.
TheKhadar belt lies in lowland areas after the Bangar belt. It is made up of fresh newer alluvium which is deposited by the rivers flowing down the plain.
TheIndo-Gangetic belt is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterruptedalluvium formed by the deposition ofsilt by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat making it conducive forirrigation throughcanals. The area is also rich inground water sources. The plains are one of the world's mostintensely farmed areas. The main crops grown arerice andwheat, which are grown inrotation. Other important crops grown in the region includemaize,sugarcane andcotton. The Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas.
The Thar Desert (also known asthe deserts) is by some calculations the world's seventh largest desert, by some others the tenth.[48] It forms a significant portion of western India and covers an area of 200,000 to 238,700 km2 (77,200 to 92,200 sq mi).[49] The desert continues into Pakistan as theCholistan Desert. Most of the Thar Desert is situated inRajasthan, covering 61% of its geographic area.
About 10 percent of this region consists of sand dunes, and the remaining 90 percent consist of craggy rock forms, compacted salt-lake bottoms, and interdunal and fixed dune areas. Annual temperatures can range from 0 °C (32 °F) in the winter to over 50 °C (122 °F) during the summer. Most of the rainfall received in this region is associated with the short July–September southwest monsoon that brings 100 to 500 mm (3.9 to 19.7 in) of precipitation. Water is scarce and occurs at great depths, ranging from 30 to 120 metres (98 to 394 ft) below the ground level.[50] Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below 120 mm (4.7 in) in the extreme west to 375 mm (14.8 in) eastward. The only river in this region is Luni. The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary as per the topographical features. The low-lying loams are heavier may have a hard pan of clay,calcium carbonate orgypsum.
In western India, the Kutch region in Gujarat and Koyna in Maharashtra are classified as a Zone IV region (high risk) for earthquakes. The Kutch city ofBhuj was theepicentre of the2001 Gujarat earthquake, which claimed the lives of more than 1,337 people and injured 166,836 while destroying or damaging near a million homes.[51] The1993 Latur earthquake in Maharashtra killed 7,928 people and injured 30,000.[52] Other areas have a moderate to low risk of an earthquake occurring.[53]
The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between theEastern Ghats and the oceanic boundary of India. It stretches fromTamil Nadu in the south toWest Bengal in the east. TheMahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri, andKrishna rivers drain these plains. The temperature in the coastal regions often exceeds 30 °C (86 °F), and is coupled with high levels ofhumidity. The region receives both thenortheast monsoon andsouthwest monsoon rains. The southwest monsoon splits into two branches, the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch. The Bay of Bengal branch moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea branch moves northwards and discharges much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Annual rainfall in this region averages between 1,000 and 3,000 mm (39 and 118 in). The width of the plains varies between 100 and 130 km (62 and 81 mi).[32] The plains are divided into six regions—the Mahanadi delta, the southern Andhra Pradesh plain, the Krishna-Godavari deltas, theKanyakumari coast, theCoromandel Coast, and sandy coastal.[citation needed]
The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between theWestern Ghats and the Arabian Sea, ranging from 50 to 100 km (31 to 62 mi) in width. It extends from Gujarat in the north and extends through Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala. Numerous rivers and backwaters inundate the region. Mostly originating in the Western Ghats, the rivers are fast-flowing, usually perennial, and empty intoestuaries. Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapti, Narmada,Mandovi andZuari. Vegetation is mostly deciduous, but theMalabar Coast moist forests constitute a unique ecoregion. The Western Coastal Plain can be divided into two parts, theKonkan and theMalabar Coast.
TheLakshadweep Islands lie 200 to 440 km (120 to 270 mi) off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian sea with an area of 32 km2 (12 sq mi). They consist of twelve atolls, three reefs, and five submerged banks, with a total of about 35 islands and islets.
TheAndaman and Nicobar Islands are located between 6° and 14° north latitude and 92° and 94° east longitude.[54] They consist of 572 islands, lying in the Bay of Bengal near theMyanmar coast running in a north–south axis for approximately 910 km. They are located 1,255 km (780 mi) fromKolkata (Calcutta) and 193 km (120 mi) fromCape Negrais in Burma.[54] The territory consists of two island groups, theAndaman Islands and theNicobar Islands. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands consist of 572 islands which run in a north–south axis for around 910 km. The Andaman group has 325 islands which cover an area of 6,170 km2 (2,380 sq mi) while the Nicobar group has only 247 islands with an area of 1,765 km2 (681 sq mi). India's only active volcano,Barren Island is situated here. It last erupted in 2017. TheNarcondum is adormant volcano and there is amud volcano atBaratang.Indira Point, India's southernmost land point, is situated in the Nicobar islands at 6°45’10″N and 93°49’36″E, and lies just 189 km (117 mi) from the Indonesian island ofSumatra, to the southeast. The highest point isMount Thullier at 642 m (2,106 ft).
India was ranked seventh among the list of countries most affected byclimate change in 2019.[56] Temperature rises on theTibetan Plateau are causingHimalayan glaciers to retreat, threatening the flow rate of theGanges,Brahmaputra,Indus,Yamuna and other major rivers. A 2007World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) report states that theIndus River may run dry for the same reason.[57] Severe landslides and floods are projected to become increasingly common in such states asAssam.[58] Temperatures in India have risen by 0.7 °C (1.3 °F) between 1901 and 2018.[59] According to some current projections, the number and severity ofdroughts in India will have markedly increased by the end of the present century.[60] Ecological disasters, such as a 1998coral bleaching event that killed off more than 70% of corals in the reef ecosystems offLakshadweep and theAndamans and was brought on by elevated ocean temperatures tied to global warming, are also projected to become increasingly common.[61][62]
India has around 14,500 km of inland navigable waterways.[63] There are twelve rivers which are classified as major rivers, with the total catchment area exceeding 2,528,000 km2 (976,000 sq mi).[28] All major rivers of Indiaoriginate from one of the three mainwatersheds:[28]
The Himalaya and the Karakoram ranges
Vindhya and Satpura range in central India
Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western India
The Himalayan river networks are snow-fed and have a perennial supply throughout the year. The other two river systems are dependent on the monsoons and shrink into rivulets during the dry season. The Himalayan rivers that flow westward intoPunjab are theIndus,Jhelum,Chenab,Ravi,Beas, andSutlej.[64]
TheGanges-Brahmaputra-Meghana system has the largest catchment area of about 1,600,000 km2 (620,000 sq mi).[65] TheGanges Basin alone has a catchment of about 1,100,000 km2 (420,000 sq mi).[28] The Ganges originates from theGangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand.[64] It flows southeast, draining into the Bay of Bengal.[28] (TheYamuna andGomti rivers also arise in the western Himalayas and join the Ganges in the plains.[28] The Brahmaputra originates inTibet,China, where it is known as theYarlung Tsangpo River) (or "Tsangpo"). It enters India in the far-eastern state ofArunachal Pradesh, then flows west throughAssam. The Brahmaputra merges with the Ganges in Bangladesh, where it is known as theJamuna River.[28][66]
TheChambal, another tributary of the Ganges, via the Yamuna, originates from the Vindhya-Satpura watershed. The river flows eastward. Westward-flowing rivers from this watershed are theNarmada andTapi, which drain into the Arabian Sea in Gujarat. The river network that flows from east to west constitutes 10% of the total outflow.[clarification needed]
(The Western Ghats are the source of all Deccan rivers, which include the throughGodavari River,Krishna River andKaveri River, all draining into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers constitute 20% of India's total outflow).[64]
The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the Brahmaputra and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas. Though they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilisation, such floods have killed thousands of people and tend to cause displacements of people in such areas.
Major gulfs include theGulf of Cambay,Gulf of Kutch, and theGulf of Mannar. Straits include thePalk Strait, which separates India from Sri Lanka; theTen Degree Channel, which separates the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands; and the Eight Degree Channel, which separates the Laccadive and Amindivi Islands from the Minicoy Island to the south. Important capes include theKanyakumari (formerly called Cape Comorin), the southern tip of mainland India;Indira Point, the southernmost point in India (onGreat Nicobar Island);Rama's Bridge, andPoint Calimere. The Arabian Sea lies to the west of India, the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean lie to the east and south, respectively. Smaller seas include theLaccadive Sea and theAndaman Sea. There are fourcoral reefs in India, located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep, and the Gulf of Kutch.[67] Important lakes includeSambhar Lake, the country's largest saltwater lake in Rajasthan,Vembanad Lake in Kerala,Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh,Loktak Lake inManipur,Dal Lake in Kashmir,Chilka Lake (lagoon lake) in Odisha, andSasthamkotta Lake in Kerala.
India'swetland ecosystem is widely distributed from the cold and arid located in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, and those with the wet and humid climate of peninsular India. Most of the wetlands are directly or indirectly linked to river networks. The Indian government has identified a total of 71 wetlands for conservation and are part of sanctuaries and national parks.[68] Mangrove forests are present all along the Indian coastline in sheltered estuaries, creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. The mangrove area covers a total of 4,461 km2 (1,722 sq mi),[69] which comprises 7% of the world's total mangrove cover. Prominent mangrove covers are located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, theSundarbans delta, theGulf of Kutch and the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna rivers. Parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala also have large mangrove covers.[67]
TheSundarbans delta is home to the largest mangrove forest in the world. It lies at the mouth of the Ganges and spreads across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal. The Sundarbans is aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site, but is identified separately as the Sundarbans (Bangladesh) and theSundarbans National Park (India). The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. The area is known for its diverse fauna, being home to a large variety of species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes. Its most famous inhabitant is theBengal tiger. It is estimated that there are now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area.
TheRann of Kutch is a marshy region located in northwestern Gujarat and the borderingSindh province of Pakistan. It occupies a total area of 27,900 km2 (10,800 sq mi).[70] The region was originally a part of the Arabian Sea. Geologic forces such as earthquakes resulted in the damming up of the region, turning it into a large saltwater lagoon. This area gradually filled with silt thus turning it into a seasonal salt marsh. During the monsoons, the area turn into a shallow marsh, often flooding to knee-depth. After the monsoons, the region turns dry and becomes parched.
Arable land
India's arable land area of 1,597,000 km2 (394.6 million acres) is the second largest in the world, after the United States. Its gross irrigated crop area of 826,000 km2 (215.6 million acres) is the largest in the world, followed by US and China.[71] Of the 160 million hectares of cultivated land in India, about 39 million hectare can be irrigated by groundwater wells and an additional 22 million hectares by irrigation canals.[72] In 2010, only about 35% of agricultural land in India was reliably irrigated.[73] About 2/3rd cultivated land in India is dependent onmonsoons.[74]
India is the world's biggest producer of mica blocks and mica splittings.[75] India ranks second amongst the world's largest producers of barite and chromite.[75] The Pleistocene system is rich in minerals. India is the third-largest coal producer in the world and ranks fourth in the production ofiron ore.[76][75] It is the fifth-largest producer of bauxite, second largest of crude steel as of February 2018 replacing Japan, the seventh-largest ofmanganese ore and the eighth-largest of aluminium.[75] India has significant sources of titanium ore, diamonds and limestone.[77] India possesses 24% of the world's known and economically viablethorium, which is mined along shores of Kerala.[78] Gold had been mined in the now-defunctKolar Gold Fields in Karnataka.[79]
Renewable water
India's total renewable water resources are estimated at 1,907.8 km3 a year.[80] Its annual supply of usable and replenishable groundwater amounts to 350 billion cubic metres.[81] Only 35% of groundwater resources are being utilised.[81] About 44 million tonnes of cargo is moved annually through the country's major rivers and waterways.[63] Groundwater supplies 40% of water in India's irrigation canals. 56% of the land is arable and used for agriculture. Black soils are moisture-retentive and are preferred for dry farming and growing cotton, linseed, etc. Forest soils are used for tea and coffee plantations. Red soils have a wide diffusion of iron content.[82]
Energy
Most of India's estimated 5.4 billion barrels (860,000,000 m3) in oil reserves are located in theMumbai High,upper Assam,Cambay, theKrishna-Godavari andCauvery basins.[76] India possesses about seventeen trillion cubic feet ofnatural gas in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Odisha.[76]Uranium is mined in Andhra Pradesh. India has 400 medium-to-high enthalpythermal springs for producinggeothermal energy in seven areas—the Himalayas, Sohana, Cambay, the Narmada-Tapti delta, the Godavari delta and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (specifically the volcanicBarren Island.)[83]
Based on theKöppen system, India hosts six major climatic subtypes, ranging from arid desert in the west,alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, and humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and the island territories. The nation has four seasons: winter (January–February), summer (March–May), a monsoon (rainy) season (June–September) and a post-monsoon period (October–December).[64]
The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigidkatabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, northern India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot. Although theTropic of Cancer—the boundary between the tropics and subtropics—passes through the middle of India, the whole country is considered to be tropical.[85]
Summer lasts between March and June in most parts of India. Temperatures can exceed 40 °C (104 °F) during the day. The coastal regions exceed 30 °C (86 °F) coupled with high levels ofhumidity. In the Thar desert area temperatures can exceed 45 °C (113 °F). The rain-bearingmonsoon clouds are attracted to the low-pressure system created by the Thar Desert. The southwest monsoon splits into two arms, the Bay of Bengal arm and the Arabian Sea arm. The Bay of Bengal arm moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea arm moves northwards and deposits much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Winters in peninsula India see mild to warm days and cool nights. Further north the temperature is cooler. Temperatures in some parts of the Indian plains sometimes fall below freezing. Most of northern India is plagued by fog during this season. The highest temperature recorded in India was 51 °C (124 °F) in Phalodi, Rajasthan.[86] And the lowest was −60 °C (−76 °F) in Dras, Jammu and Kashmir.[87]
India's geological features are classified based on their era of formation.[88] ThePrecambrian formations of Cudappah and Vindhyan systems are spread out over the eastern and southern states. A small part of this period is spread over western and central India.[88] ThePaleozoic formations from the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian system are found in the Western Himalaya region in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.[88] TheMesozoicDeccan Traps formation is seen over most of the northern Deccan; they are believed to be the result ofsub-aerial volcanic activity.[88] The Trap soil is black in colour and conducive to agriculture. The Carboniferous system, Permian System and Triassic systems are seen in the western Himalayas. The Jurassic system is seen in the western Himalayas and Rajasthan.
Geological regions of India
Tertiary imprints are seen in parts of Manipur, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and along the Himalayan belt. The Cretaceous system is seen in central India in the Vindhyas and part of the Indo-Gangetic plains.[88] The Gondwana system is seen in the Narmada River area in the Vindhyas and Satpuras. The Eocene system is seen in the western Himalayas and Assam. Oligocene formations are seen in Kutch and Assam.[88] ThePleistocene system is found over central India. The Andaman and Nicobar Island are thought to have been formed in this era by volcanoes.[88] The Himalayas were formed by the convergence and deformation of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian Plates. Their continued convergence raises the height of the Himalayas by one centimetre each year.
Soils in India can be classified into eight categories: alluvial, black, red, laterite, forest, arid and desert, saline and alkaline and peaty and organic soils.[89][90] Alluvial soil constitute the largest soil group in India, constituting 80% of the total land surface.[90] It is derived from the deposition of silt carried by rivers and are found in the Great Northern plains from Punjab to the Assam valley.[90] Alluvial soil are generally fertile but they lack nitrogen and tend to be phosphoric.[90]National Disaster Management Authority says that 60% of Indian landmass is prone toearthquakes and 8% susceptible to cyclone risks.
Black soil are well developed in the Deccan lava region of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.[82] These contain high percentage of clay and are moisture retentive.[90] Red soils are found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka plateau, Andhra plateau, Chota Nagpur plateau and the Aravallis.[82] These are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus.[90][82] Laterite soils are formed in tropical regions with heavy rainfall. Heavy rainfall results in leaching out all soluble material of top layer of soil. These are generally found in Western ghats, Eastern ghats and hilly areas of northeastern states that receive heavy rainfall. Forest soils occur on the slopes of mountains and hills in Himalayas, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. These generally consist of large amounts of dead leaves and other organic matter calledhumus.
Cratons
Topography of India
Malani Igneous Suite, largest in India and third largest igneous suite in the world, at Jodhpur nearMehrangarh Fort.
Cratons are a specific kind ofcontinental crust made up of a top layer calledplatform and an older layer calledbasement. Ashield is the part of a craton where basement rock crops out of the ground, and it is relatively the older and more stable section, unaffected byplate tectonics.[91][92]
The Indian Craton can be divided into five major cratons as such:
Aravalli Craton (Marwar-Mewar Craton or Western Indian Craton): CoversRajasthan as well aswestern andsouthernHaryana. It comprises Mewar Craton in the east and Marwar Craton in the west. It is limited by theGreat Boundary Fault in the east, sandy Thar Desert in theThar desert in the west, Indo-ganetic alluvium in the north,Son-Narmada-Tapti in the south. It mainly hasquartzite,marble,pelite,greywacke and extinct volcanos exposed inAravalli-Delhi Orogen.Malani Igneous Suite is the largest in India and third largestigneous suite in the world.
Bundelkand Craton, covers 26,00 km2 in theBundelkhand region ofUttar Pradesh andMadhya Pradesh and forms the basis of the Malwa Plateau. It is limited by theAravalli in the west, Narmada river and Satpura range in the south, and Indo-Gantetic alluvium in the north. It is similar to the Aravali Craton, which used to be a single craton before being divided into two with the evolution ofHindoli andMahakoshal belts at the margins of two cratons.
Dharwar Craton (Karnataka Craton), 3.4 - 2.6 Ga,granite-greenstone terrain covers the state ofKarnataka and parts of eastern and southernMaharashtra state, and forms the basis of the southern end of the Deccan Plateau. In 1886 it was divided into two tectonic blocks, namely Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC) and Western Dharwar Craton (WDC).
Singhbhum Craton, 4,000 km2 area which primarily coversJharkhand as well as parts ofOdisha, northernAndhra Pradesh, northernTelangana and eastern Maharashtra. It is limited by the Chhota Nagpur Plateau to the north, Eastern Ghats to the southeast, Bastar Craton to southwest and alluvium plain to the east.
Bastar Craton (Bastar-Bhandara Craton), primarily coversChhattisgarh and forms the basis of the Chhota Nagpur Plateau. It is a remnant of 3.4-3.0 Ga oldTTGgneisses of five types. It is subdivided into Kotri-DongagarhOrogen and the Rest of Bastar Craton. It is limited by threerifts,Godavari rift in southwest,Narmada rift in northwest andMahanadi rift in northeast.
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