| Geneva Summit | |
|---|---|
 Reagan and Gorbachev at the Geneva Summit | |
| Host country |  Switzerland |
| Dates | November 19–21, 1985 (1985-11-19 –1985-11-21) (39 years ago) |
| Cities | Geneva |
| Venues |
|
| Participants |  Mikhail Gorbachev Ronald Reagan |
| Follows | Vienna Summit (1979) |
| Precedes | Reykjavík Summit (1986) |
TheGeneva Summit of 1985 was aCold War-era meeting inGeneva, Switzerland. It was held on November 19‑21, 1985, between U.S. PresidentRonald Reagan and Soviet General SecretaryMikhail Gorbachev. The two leaders met for the first time to hold talks on international diplomatic relations and thearms race.
After Gorbachev became general secretary in March 1985, only two months elapsed before the first mentions were made of a possible summit between Reagan and Gorbachev. While meeting with Secretary of StateGeorge Shultz in Vienna in May 1985, Soviet Foreign MinisterAndrei Gromyko approached Shultz discreetly asking to begin the process of planning for the two leaders to meet. Subsequent discussion over the following months established possible topics for negotiation.[1] As to the location, Reagan had wanted Gorbachev to select Washington, D.C. as the site for the summit, arguing that it was the Soviets' turn to come to the United States, since two previous American presidents, Nixon and Ford, both went to the Soviet Union in 1974. Gorbachev instead preferred a neutral site, so the city of Geneva was agreed upon sometime in June 1985.[2]
Reagan's advisorsBud McFarlane andJack Matlock in preparation for the summit had identified weaknesses in Reagan's understanding of the Soviet Union, as Reagan "still tended to base many of his judgments more on generalities, even slogans, than on a nuanced understanding of Soviet reality."[3]: 132 Beginning in June 1985, a series of papers were written for him, "organized to give Reagan a rounded picture of the country and its people".[3]: 132–133
In July 1985, theWhite House summitadvance team identified two possible residences in Geneva for the Reagans to reside in during their stay, butNancy Reagan vetoed the first choice. After consulting with theastrologerJoan Quigley, Nancy Reagan insisted onMaison de Saussure, the same residencePresident Eisenhower used during his stay at theGeneva Summit of 1955.[4]: 357
Reagan was convinced that the personal assessments he and Gorbachev would make of each other at their meetings would be crucial to the outcome of the summit. It was Reagan's understanding that the1961 Vienna Summit betweenPresident Kennedy andNikita Khrushchev failed due to a lack of chemistry between the two leaders, where Khrushchev "walked over Kennedy and Kennedy knew it".[5] In order to foster a more personable environment, the Geneva summit was structured with the first two days consisting of a series of private meetings with only Reagan and Gorbachev present (and their interpreters) interspersed with a series of plenary meetings with Reagan and Gorbachev accompanied by their major advisors. A third day consisting of a concluding joint press conference and signing ceremony was also scheduled. Each day's events occurred at different locations in and around Geneva:[6]
| November 19 Fleur d'Eau | November 20 Soviet Mission | November 21 CICG |
|---|---|---|
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Having departedAndrews AFB onAir Force One at 8:35 in the morning—the exact time suggested by the astrologer Quigley—President Reagan arrived in Geneva ahead of the summit on the evening of November 16, 1985.[4]: 367 The next day, Reagan and his retinue toured the grounds ofFleur d'Eau, the villa inVersoix where the first day's meetings were to take place.[7]: 12–14 On November 18, Reagan was officially received by Swiss PresidentKurt Furgler atLe Reposoir.[7]: 16–17
On November 19, 1985, Reagan and Gorbachev met for the first time at Fleur d'Eau.[9] When the Soviet motorcade deposited Gorbachev at the driveway of Fleur d'Eau's eastern facade, Reagan emerged from the villa without his coat to greet him. Commentators later contrasted the image of Reagan in a blue suit next to Gorbachev in an overcoat, seemingly as a sign of Reagan’s vitality. Reagan had been wearing an overcoat and scarf, but was urged by his personal aide,Jim Kuhn, to take them off for appearance’s sake.[8][10]
Gorbachev later said: "We viewed the Geneva meeting realistically, without grand expectations, yet we hoped to lay the foundations for a serious dialogue in the future".[11] Reagan's goal was to convince Gorbachev that America desired peace above all else.[12] Reagan described his hopes for the summit as a "mission for peace". The first thing Reagan said to Gorbachev was "The United States and the Soviet Union are the two greatest countries on Earth, the superpowers. They are the only ones who can start World War 3, but also the only two countries that could bring peace to the world".[6]: 651 He then emphasized the personal similarities between the two leaders, with both being born in similar "rural hamlets in the middle of their respective countries" and the great responsibilities they held.[6]: 650–651
During their first private meeting, Gorbachev told Reagan of information he had received from theSoviet Academy of Sciences, specifically the Institute for Earth Studies, where the scientists had become convinced that there would be a major earthquake in an area of California and Nevada by 1988. This forecast was based on a computer analysis of patterns of seismicity worldwide. Reagan replied that he realized that such an earthquake was considered to be overdue.[b][6]: 655
According toSecretary of StateGeorge Shultz, Reagan and Gorbachev's first private meeting exceeded its scheduled time by "over a half an hour".[a] After being urged by White House Chief of StaffDon Regan to intervene, Reagan's personal aide Jim Kuhn asked Shultz whether he should interrupt the meeting. Shultz replied, "If you think so, then you shouldn't have this job".[4]: 371 [5][14] Despite this melodramatic rebuke of Kuhn, the actual reason for the meeting going past its scheduled time was likely more prosaic than Shultz imagined. While Reagan and Gorbachev's plenary meetings featuredsimultaneous translation, the two leader's private meetings all featuredconsecutive translation—a mode of interpretation which, by its very nature, tends to double the time spent on communication[4]: 363 —rendering the first private meeting's initial time allotment of 15 minutes as unrealistic.[4]: 371
Reagan and Gorbachev's second private meeting was held at Fleur d'Eau's pool house,[c] where a fireplace provided the backdrop to a seated Reagan and Gorbachev,[6]: 671 leading some to call Geneva's summit the "fireside summit".[17]
Speaking with a group of Maryland high school students shortly after the summit about his second private meeting with Gorbachev, Reagan disclosed that he had discussed the topic of analien invasion, saying, "I couldn't help but say to him, just think how easy his task and mine might be if suddenly there was a threat to this world from some other species from another planet outside in the universe."[18] Reagan explained that his remarks to Gorbachev were meant to further a sense of togetherness, as "we'd forget all the little local differences that we have between our two countries, and we would find out once and for all that we really are all human beings here on this Earth together", adding that "I don't suppose we can wait for some alien race to come down and threaten us, but I think that between us, we can bring about that realization."[19] In a 2009 interview, Gorbachev confirmed that during their second private meeting Reagan had asked if the Soviet Union would help if the U.S. was invaded by aliens from space. Gorbachev said yes, and that Reagan said, "we would too".[20][21][d]
Reagan also presented to Gorbachev at their second private meeting two pages of nine separate arms control deals which Gorbachev took to be a package deal, a "take it or leave it" proposition. Gorbachev indicated that the items on their face were not acceptable.[25] While the walk to the pool house was spent talking about Reagan's films,[6]: 671 the walk back from the pool house saw Reagan and Gorbachev agreeing to continue to meet at further summits.[6]: 677
On November 20, 1985, Reagan and Gorbachev began their second day of meetings, this time atGeneva's Soviet Mission. The main focus of the third plenary meeting held there was the Strategic Defense Initiative, with Gorbachev insisting that SDI represented a new phase of the arms buildup in space and Reagan insisting that SDI was merely "a shield" againstICBMs.[6]: 700–701 Reagan replied that, where Gorbachev saw a threat, "we saw an opportunity",[6]: 704 and that both sides first ought to be seeking to reduce offensive arms by 50 percent, since the US would ultimately not "miss the opportunity to develop a defense because of fear that it might have an offensive potential".[6]: 705
Members of the Reagan Administration were said to have privately lamented what they considered to be an insufficient focus on human rights issues at the summit. Reagan stressed in interviews before the summit that he would deal with that issue privately with Gorbachev, on the grounds that he had decided the best way to deal with it was through "quiet diplomacy".[26]
Much of Reagan and Gorbachev's third private meeting at the Soviet Mission was spent on the subject of human rights,[6]: 689 with Reagan focusing on "the desire of Soviet Jews to emigrate to Israel", because of the "large Jewish community in the U.S., which had an influence on Congress". Reagan emphasized that "we would express our appreciation for what was done [on emigration]", reiterating that there would be "no hint that this was done as a result of U.S. efforts". Reagan stated that handling emigration in this manner "would make it easier for the President to do the type of things which the two countries could do together, such as in the area of trade, for which the President needed Congressional support".[6]: 690 Gorbachev countered by stating his belief that the issue of human rights was "being used for political purposes, not only by representatives of various political organizations which were anti-Soviet, but also by officials of the U.S. Administration, including the President."[6]: 691 Gorbachev stated that "the fate of Jewish people was of concern to the Soviet government", adding that "after what the Fascists had done to the Jews, the Soviet Union had done everything it could to give them special attention, and it had not regretted doing so."[6]: 692
Gorbachev mentioned what he saw as examples of personal discrimination occurring in the United States, to which Reagan stated that "there were individuals, perhaps employers in factories, with personal prejudices about hiring women, blacks, and so on", but that according to the law, "there can be no discrimination".[6]: 695
As if to underline Gorbachev's mention of discrimination in the United States, White House Chief of StaffDon Regan courted controversy when an interview he gave on the eve of the summit to theWashington Post brought fresh condemnation on the summit's second day from the media and American politicians such asPatricia Schroeder andBella Abzug. Regan had said that news coverage of the American and Sovietfirst ladies' interactions during the summit would have particular appeal to women because women would not understand the summit’s political, diplomatic and military intricacies, saying "they’re not ... going to understandthrow-weights or what is happening in Afghanistan or what is happening in human rights", adding that "some women will, but most women—believe me, your readers for the most part if you took a poll—would rather read the human interest stuff of what happened".[27]
Reagan and Gorbachev were both asked to comment on Regan’s remarks as they entered the Soviet Mission on the second day of the summit. Reagan said of Regan, "I don’t think he meant it in that way at all. I think he was trying to say they are interested in other things as well, in the entire human view", while Gorbachev replied that "both men and women in the United States and the Soviet Union and all over the world are interested in having peace for themselves and being sure that this peace would become stable and lasting for the future. ... And to that end, they are interested in the reduction in the numbers of weapons."[27]
With regards to planning for the summit's final ceremony, both Reagan and Shultz pressed Gorbachev to agree to having the two leaders perform a more visual verbal statement in front of the assembled press and television cameras in addition to the signing ceremony, arguing that "if these leaders were simply present and went through the business of signing documents, it would not be the same thing as having them actually speak."[28]: 4 Gorbachev had preferred simply releasing a joint written communique, in that it would "represent the embodiment of the significance of such a document", and that inviting the leaders themselves to make verbal statements would be a mistake in that "there might even be an unfortunate phrase which would detract from the weight and significance of the document."
According to their memorandum of conversations Reagan "begged to disagree", saying "a full [verbal] statement would be an honest, frank and open document about what had, and had not, been achieved, and about the fact that these meetings between them would be continuing", stating that because he and the General Secretary "were there at a ceremony", they "would not have to comment on the specifics of any document".[28]: 4–5 Reagan added that "hope in the world has grown as a result of this summit meeting, and people should not be disappointed in this respect." Gorbachev relented and agreed to a short verbal statement of one to three minutes duration, with Reagan concurring that it had always been his idea not to go into any great detail.[28]: 5
Reagan's push towards making a verbal statement rather than a written one was due to the paucity of strong agreements being reached at the summit which Reagan thought might discourage the public watching from afar, and that to prevent this, a verbal statement was needed to provide reassurance.[29] The memorandum of conversations shows Gorbachev having difficulty with the apparent disingenuousness of warm-sounding verbal statements as opposed to the colder reality of a written communique, saying that ultimately, there "was no need for rose-colored glasses":
"Gorbachev noted that one other thing bothered him, namely, that having produced a document the sides do not believe in themselves; commenting on it, even briefly and generally, would only serve to strengthen and reaffirm the content of that document. President Reagan responded that instead of being silent, it would be better for the people who have placed so much hope in the outcome of these meetings to hear that he and Gorbachev are going to continue to meet despite the fact that they have not solved all of the problems connected with the communique. He [Reagan] said that the tone and the need here were simply not to leave this meeting and have people disappointed that there had been no progress and thus have the hopes of so many people dashed."[28]: 5
— Memorandum of Conversations, November 20, 1985
On November 21, 1985, at Geneva's International Conference Center (CICG), Reagan and Gorbachev held a joint press conference announcing several agreements, including implementation of the already signed Northern Pacific Air Safety accord that aimed at preventing a repeat of the Soviet downing ofKorean Airlines Flight 007 in September 1983.[30] A signing ceremony followed, with an agreement on the opening of consulates in Kiev and New York being signed, as well as agreements to renew regular U.S.‑Soviet dialogue on future summit meetings. Forty‑one cultural exchange agreements were also signed, including the restart of exchanges of theatrical and artistic groups and major art exhibits that were suspended after theSoviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979.[26]
At the end of the summit, Reagan gave Gorbachev aColonial WilliamsburgChippendale-style mahogany box and desk set with fountain pens, carrying the theme "peace through communications", selected in honor of the 10th anniversary of the U.S.‑SovietApollo–Soyuz space mission. Gorbachev gave Reagan a set of bronze medallions in a leather case representing the 15 republics of the Soviet Union.[26]
After a stop inBrussels to brief allies, Reagan returned to Washington to give an address on the summit to a joint session of Congress.[31] Gorbachev on his return trip to Moscow stopped inPrague to brief the Soviets'Warsaw Pact allies.[4]: 382
Although the summit lacked the larger-type agreements seen in past summits such asSALT, the summit did help to reset relations, which by that point had reached a nadir, with no summit having been held for six years. Both Reagan and Gorbachev came away from Geneva feeling that they had "started something", with Reagan saying that the meetings in Geneva "expressed the will and desire of both sides to find answers that would benefit not only all the people of the world, but also the yet unborn". Gorbachev agreed, saying "if now we have laid the first few bricks, we have made a new start, a new phase has begun."[28]: 3
According to Jack Matlock, instances during the summit which seemed to register most in the public consciousness, such as Reagan's absent overcoat and the pool house's roaring fireplace, showcased the role that public relations—in particular, the use of imagery—played in helping to convey the president's preferred messages, since in the Reagan White House, "few questions received more attention".[3]: 145 Matlock explained:
"For those of us who planned the Geneva summit, we spent as much time thinking about presentation and appearance as we did about the issues themselves. William J. Henkel, who headed the advance team to Geneva and had long experience in arranging for effective campaign appearances, looked to every detail of imagery: where the press pool would be located so as to present Reagan in the most favorable light, what would be in the background of photographs, how to position Reagan to be seen as the dominant partner in the dialogue. ... It was Henkel's idea to have a fire in the fireplace when Reagan invited Gorbachev to stop in for a private chat during their planned walk around the Villa's grounds. The Soviet advance people were [also] obsessively protective of their leader's status. ... However, not having run election campaigns and with little experience dealing with Western journalists, they were no match for their American counterparts when it came tosetting the stage to make their man look good."[3]: 145, 147–148
— Jack Matlock,National Security Council special assistant; American Ambassador to Czechoslovakia (1981-1983) and the Soviet Union (1987-1991)
White House attempts at influencing the summit's visual narrative were not always so easily accepted by the gathered media. According to theLA Times, Reagan and Gorbachev's second private meeting at the pool house was initially described byWhite House Press SecretaryLarry Speakes as spontaneous in nature, with Reagan ending his and Gorbachev's afternoon meeting 50 minutes early by suggesting that Gorbachev accompany him on a walk. "Donning coats on the chilly afternoon", theLA Times said, "they headed for the lake, joined only by interpreters. After a five-minute stroll, the two leaders entered a lakeside pool house where logs were blazing in the fireplace. They continued their talks for another 44 minutes."[32] Speakes told the media that the impromptu walk to the pool house occurred because "the President, I think, felt at a certain point in the meeting that it was a desirable time for the two to continue their talks alone", with Speakes describing the genesis of the resulting second private meeting at the pool house as an entirely "unexpected development". Speakes did not reveal to theLA Times how the unexpected meeting had accommodations happened‑upon by the two leaders with such fortuitous inclusion of two chairs and an active fireplace, with Speakes only jokingly saying that the site was "probably one of those pool houses that has a 24‑hour‑a‑day fire".[32]
In Hollywood Reagan became an avid science fiction fan, absorbed with a favorite theme of the genre: the invasion from outer space that prompts earthlings to put aside nationalistic quarrels and band together against an alien invader. Reagan liked this idea so much that he tried it out on Gorbachev in their first meeting at Geneva in 1985 ... He also repeated it to his advisors, to mixed reactions. National Security AdvisorColin Powell, for example, knew more than he had ever wanted to know about Reagan's preoccupation with what Powell called 'the little green men' and he struggled diligently to keep interplanetary references out of Reagan's speeches.
The Geneva Summit of 1985 was a very successful example of media management. ... Only through highly sophisticated and preemptive 'spin control' by the White House Press Office under Larry Speakes were rifts avoided. Speakes' memoirs document Soviet collaboration in manufacturing quotes of mutual convenience for the communiques which helped mould opinion.
46°17′24″N6°10′01″E / 46.29009°N 6.16705°E /46.29009; 6.16705
