As a consequence of theFrench Mandate of Syria that created the modernFirst Syrian Republic and its structures, the country's civil intelligence services owe much to the French template which shaped their early development since 1945. Civilian intelligence service calledDepartment of General Security (Sûreté Générale) was established, and became one of the two security agencies of Syria, the other beingDeuxième Bureau. After1949 Syrian coup d'état, theSûreté Générale became no more than an executive arm of theDeuxième Bureau. With the tenure ofAbd al-Hamid Sarraj as director of theDeuxième Bureau, which lasted from 1954 to 1958, exemplified these trends. His officers became increasingly active in both Lebanon and northern Israel.[2]
In February 1958, the Syrian government merged withEgypt to form theUnited Arab Republic (UAR).[2] The union lasted until September 1961. During that union, Syrian intelligence services came under the overall authority of the EgyptianDirectorate of General Intelligence withSalah Nasr as director.[3] After its secession from the UAR in 1961, the new Syrian government under PresidentNazim al-Qudsi reformed security sector. TheDeuxième Bureau and a reformed civilian intelligence, renamed as theInternal Security Forces Command (ISFC), started their activities inLebanon. On 15 December 1961, Col. Muhammad Hisham al-Samman was appointed as Commander of Internal Security Forces, assisted by a Committee under his presidency.[4] Along with theKuzbari government, he pledged to establish political liberties and to disestablish emergency laws, which never came into existence. With the1963 Syrian coup d'état, the security services adapted to the new political system of theBa'ath Party. It was intensively trained by the EgyptianState Security on its domestic affairs such as political repression,mass surveillance, coercive interrogation techniques among others.
The renewed service was used in April 1964 to crackdown uprisings inHama led by theSyrian Muslim Brotherhood and backed by Egypt.[5] On 24 March 1965, Decree No. 67 put the ISFC into a military framework with link to the Interior Ministry, thus ending the civilian control.[6] After theFebruary 1966 coup within theBa'th Party,Salah Jadid emerged as the leader of Syria's most radical regime to date.[7] Jadid centralized control of all intelligence and security services under Col.Abd al-Karim al-Jundi, the head of theNational Security Bureau of the Ba'ath Party.[8] From 1966 to 1969, Jundi further expanded the role and power of the Syrian agencies, both at home and abroad. It was during this period that their reputation for brutal ruthlessness was firmly established. Also in this period, the ISFC was organized and extensively trained by theGDR'sStasi.[9] The use of Palestinian guerrillas against Israel was core of its foreign intelligence.
In November 1970,Hafez al-Assad oustedJadid in what he labelled aCorrective Movement. The new system has proved to be Syria's most stable and durable since independence and has toned down the previous radicalism. It was established in 1971. By 1972, theGeneral Intelligence Directorate was significantly modelled on theGDR'sStasi.[10] Under the government ofHafez al-Assad andBa'ath Party, especially from 1973, agents of Syria’s GSD were a frequent visitors inEast Berlin for training. According toStasi files, the Syrians also received equipment and materials fromEast Germany, the last such deliveries documented up until 1990.[11]
UnderBashar al-Assad there has been a remarkable continuity among the senior personnel in the intelligence community. The service was in competition withPolitical Security Directorate in the late 20th century.[12] Major GeneralGhazi Kanaan possibly headed international security of theGeneral Security Directorate in the late 20th century. In the late 20th century, between 1998 and 2001, Major General Ali Houri was director of General Security Directorate.
Six years later in April 2011, the US government imposed sanctions on Ali Mamlouk, saying he had been responsible for human rights abuses, including the use of violence against civilians. Agency had repressed internal dissent, monitored individual citizens, and had been involved in the Syrian government's actions inDaraa, where protesters were killed by Syrian security services. The next month, theEuropean Union also imposed sanctions on Ali Mamlouk, saying he had been involved in efforts to suppress anti-government protesters. A Sunni, he is said to be on good terms with all of Syria's intelligence agencies – the heads ofAir Force Intelligence Directorate and thePolitical Security Directorate were once his assistants. He is a part of Bashar al-Assad's inner circle.[14]After the18 July 2012 bombing of theCentral Crisis Management Cell (Syria) and the death of its four key members of team,Mohammed Dib Zaitoun was named as head of the General Intelligence Directorate.[15]
The General Intelligence Directorate was dissolved along with the Ba'athist Syrian institutions in December 2024 following thecollapse of the Assad regime.Anas Khattab, appointed head of Syrian intelligence said country's security institution will be restructured after all current security entities are dissolved.[16][17]
Information branch: Zouheir Hamad (?–July 2010)[32]
Zouheir Hamad (July 2010–July 2012), the European Union sanctioned him for "the use of violence across Syria and for intimidation and torture of protesters during theSyrian Civil War".[29][30]
Deputy Director: General Nazih (July 2010–July 2012), the European Union sanctioned him for "being responsible for the use of violence across Syria and intimidation and torture of protestors during theSyrian uprising".[30]
Information branch: Ghassan Khalil (July 2010–?), the European Union sanctioned him for "being involved in repression and violence against the civilian population in Syria during theSyrian uprising".[29][30][32]
Deputy Director: Zouheir Hamad (25 July 2012 – 7 July 2019)
Internal branch (251):Tawfiq Younes (2011-2016),[34] the European Union sanctioned him for "being involved in violence against demonstrators during theSyrian uprisings".[30]
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