Kaya | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 42–562 | |||||||||||
 Map showing the approximate location of selected Kaya polities. | |||||||||||
| Common languages | Gaya | ||||||||||
| Religion | Buddhism,Shamanism | ||||||||||
| Government | Confederation | ||||||||||
• 42–199 | Suro (first, Geumgwan) | ||||||||||
• ? – 562 | Doseolji (last, Dae) | ||||||||||
| Historical era | Ancient | ||||||||||
• Establishment | 42 | ||||||||||
• Fall ofGeumgwan Gaya | 532 | ||||||||||
• Submission toSilla | 562 | ||||||||||
| |||||||||||
| Today part of | South Korea | ||||||||||
| Korean name | |||||||||||
| Hangul | 가야 | ||||||||||
| Hanja | 加耶; 伽倻 | ||||||||||
| RR | Gaya | ||||||||||
| MR | Kaya | ||||||||||
| IPA | [ka.ja] | ||||||||||
TheKaya confederacy (Korean:가야;Hanja:加倻;pronounced[ka.ja]), also romanized asGaya confederacy, was a Korean confederacy of territorial polities in theNakdong River basin of southernKorea,[1] growing out of theByeonhan confederacy of theSamhan period.
The traditional period used by historians for Kaya chronology is AD 42–532.Geumgwan Kaya, the ruling state of the confederacy, was conquered in 532 and the last holdout,Daegaya fell in 562. According to archaeological evidence in the third and fourth centuries some of the city-states of Byeonhan evolved into the Kaya confederacy, which was later annexed bySilla, one of theThree Kingdoms of Korea. The individual polities that made up the Kaya confederacy have been characterized as smallcity-states.[2] The material culture remains of Kaya culture mainly consist of burials and their contents of mortuary goods that have been excavated by archaeologists. Archaeologists interpret mounded burial cemeteries of the late third and early fourth centuries such as Daeseong-dong inGimhae and Bokcheon-dong inBusan as the royal burial grounds of Kaya polities.[3]
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Although most commonly referred to as Kaya (가야;加耶; 伽耶l; 伽倻;[kaja]), probably due to the imprecision of transcribing Korean words intohanja, historical sources use a variety of names, including Karak (가락;駕洛; 迦落;[kaɾak]), Kara (가라;加羅; 伽羅; 迦羅; 柯羅;[kaɾa]), Karyang (가량;加良;[kaɾjaŋ]), and Kuya (구야;狗耶;[kuja]).[4] According toChristopher I. Beckwith, "The spelling Kaya is the modern Korean reading of the characters used to write the name; the pronunciation /kara/ (transcriptionally *kala) is certain."[5]
InJapanese, Kaya is often referred to asMimana (任那), a name with considerable present-day political connotations. However, another word called "Kara (から)" was used when alluding to ancient Korea, a word that is believed to have derived from the alternate spelling of Kaya,Kara (加羅) which is now represented by three separate characters: 韓, 漢 and 唐 inkun'yomi. It is thought that the meaning of "Korea" was initially preserved in Japanese in the word "Kara" which later expanded to include "China, then mainland East Asia" and, more recently, an even more vague sense of "the nations overseas or foreign countries".[6]
Linguists, includingVovin andJanhunen, suggest thatJaponic languages were spoken in large parts of the southernKorean Peninsula. According to Vovin, these "Peninsular Japonic languages" were replaced byKoreanic-speakers (possibly belonging to theHan-branch).[7][8]
The laterKaya language likely belonged to the KoreanicHan languages.
The genetic diversity in the Kaya Kingdom region is linked toJomon-related ancestry.[9]
According to a legend written in theSamguk yusa in the 13th century, six eggs descended from heaven in the year AD 42 with a message that they would be kings. Six boys were born and matured within 12 days. One of them, namedSuro, became the king ofGeumgwan Kaya, and the other five founded the remaining five Gayas:Daegaya, Seongsan Kaya,Ara Gaya,Goryeong Kaya, and Sogaya.[10]
The Kaya polities evolved out of the chiefly political structures of the twelve tribes of the ancientByeonhan confederacy, one of theSamhan confederacies. The loosely organized chiefdoms resolved into six Kaya groups, centered on Geumgwan Kaya. Based on archaeological sources and the limited written records, scholars have identified the late 3rd century as a period of transition from Byeonhan to Kaya, noting increasing military activity and changing funerary customs. This transition was also associated with the replacement of the previous elite in some principalities (including Daegaya) by elements from theBuyeo kingdom, which brought a more militaristic ideology and style of rule.[11][12]
After the Eight Port Kingdoms War (浦上八國 亂) (c. 209 – c. 212) between Silla and Kaya, Kaya was influenced by Silla's southeast peninsular hegemony, but diplomatically utilized the influence of Paekche and Japan to maintain independence. The Kaya confederacy disintegratedunder pressure from Goguryeo between 391 and 412, although thelast Kaya polities remained independent until they were conquered by Silla in 562, as punishment for assistingPaekche in a war against Silla.
In 529, Silla destroyed Takgitan Gaya (啄己呑國) under the pretext of its alliance with Daegaya and took half of Taksun Gaya's (卓淳國) territory. This led Daegaya to distrust the Kaya and begin uniting around theAra Gaya, which was maintaining a strong power. In order to escape interference between Paekche and Silla in Kaya, the Ara Gaya invited Silla, Paekche, and Japan to hold the Anra Conference (安羅會議). Although they wanted to pressure Silla through the meeting to rebuild the Takgitan Kaya (啄己呑國) and raise the international status of Anra, Paekche preferred strong diplomacy and Silla was not interested in it. AlthoughJapan was pro-Anra Kaya, it was unable to help due to internal problems.[13][14][15]
In 541 and 544, Paekche led theSabi Conferences (泗沘會議), which were participated in by seven countries including Ara. However, Ara still did not fully trust in Paekche. As a result of the conference, Kaya attacked Goguryeo alongside the Silla-Paekche alliance and acquired Seoul. In this attack, Paekche was betrayed by Silla and Kaya was also absorbed by Silla.[16][17]
Polities were situated in the alluvial flats of tributary river valleys and the mouth of the Nakdong. In particular, the mouth of the Nakdong has fertile plains, direct access to the sea, and rich iron deposits. Kaya polities had economies that were based onagriculture,fishing,casting, and long-distancetrade. They were particularly known for its iron-working, as Byeonhan had been before it. Kaya polities exported abundant quantities of iron ore, iron armor, and other weaponry toPaekche and theKingdom of Wa.[18] In contrast to the largely commercial and non-political ties of Byeonhan, Kaya polities seem to have attempted to maintain strong political ties with those kingdoms as well.
Several ancient historical records list a number of polities of Kaya. For example, Goryeo Saryak (고려사략;高麗史略) lists five:Geumgwan Gaya,Goryeong Gaya,Bihwa Gaya,Ara Gaya, andSeongsan Gaya.
Traditionally, the Kaya confederacy enjoyed good relations with Japan and Paekche, such as when the three states allied against Goguryeo and Silla in theGoguryeo-Wa War. Records indicate Kaya would, alongside Paekche, regularly send economic, cultural, and technological aid to Japan in exchange for military and political aid, as the Yamato court desired technological progress and cultural advancement while Paekche and the Kaya states desired Japan's military aid in their wars against Silla and Goguryeo.[19]
The various Kaya polities formed a confederacy in the 2nd and 3rd centuries that was centered on the heartland ofGeumgwan Gaya in modernGimhae. After a period of decline, the confederacy was revived around the turn of the 5th and 6th centuries, this time centered on Daegaya of modernGoryeong. However, it was unable to defend itself against the incursions and attacks of the neighboring kingdom ofSilla. Eventually, all of the Kaya confederacy was absorbed into Silla.[20]
After the fall of the Kaya confederacy, many of the nobility and elite of the confederated states were integrated into the ranks of Silla'sbone-rank system including the royal houses of the defeated Kaya confederacy.[21] One such example was the Sillan GeneralKim Yu-sin who played a critical role in the unification of theThree Kingdoms of Korea. Kim was the great-grandchild of King Guhae of Geumgwan Kaya, the last ruler of the Geumgwan Kaya state. As a result, Kim was given the rank of "true bone" which was the second highest rank one could attain, in part because the royal family of Geungwan Kaya, theGimhae Kim clan were intermarried with theGyeongju Kim clan, which was a prominent noble house in Silla.[22]
Political and trade relations with Japan have been a source of controversy in both Korea and Japan. Japanese publicists during the twentieth century looked to theNihon Shoki, which claims that Kaya (named "Mimana" also "Kara" in Japanese) was a military outpost of Japan during the Yamato period (300–710). While there is no evidence to support this, the claim has nonetheless been advocated at various times byJapanese imperialists, nationalists and press to justify theJapanese colonial rule of Korea between 19th and 20th centuries.[23][24]
Archaeological evidence suggests that Kaya polities were the main exporter of technology and culture to Kyushu at that time. The theory of a Japanese outpost is widely rejected in Korea and Japan as there were no Japanese local groups at the time that had a strong enough military power to conquer Kaya or any other part of Korea.[25][26] The technology of Kaya was more advanced than that of the Japanese dynasties of the time.[25][26]
Though this theory has been largely refuted since the 1970s, it remains a sensitive and re-occurring issue in modern-day.
In 2010, a joint study group of historians sponsored by the governments of Japan and South Korea agreed that Kaya had never been militarily colonized by ancient Japan.[27]
... there are strong indications that the neighbouring Baekje state (in the southwest) was predominantly Japonic-speaking until it was linguistically Koreanized.
35°09′36″N128°13′48″E / 35.16000°N 128.23000°E /35.16000; 128.23000
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