| Author | Vākpatirāja |
|---|---|
| Original title | गउडवहो |
| Translator | Narhari Govind Suru |
| Language | Prakrit |
| Subject | Life of kingYashovarman |
| Genre | Mahakavya |
Publication date | 8th century |
| Publication place | Ancient India |
Gaudavaho ("Slaying of theGauda king"), also known asGauḍavaha, is an 8th-centuryPrakrit-language epic poem by Vākpatirāja. It narrates the exploits of the poet's patron, kingYashovarman, who ruled in northern India. The poem deifies the king as an incarnation of the godVishnu, and credits him with several military achievements, including slaying of the Gauda king.
A little over 1200 verses of the text are known from several manuscripts. According to some scholars such asGeorg Bühler, the surviving text is only a prelude to the larger poem that Vakpati intended to write, but possibly never finished.
Gaudavaho was composed by Vakpati-raja (Prakrit: "Bappai-rāa"[1]), a court poet of kingYashovarman. He wrote in the first half of the 8th century. He states that he was known asKavi-raja (Prakrit: "Kairāa",[2] "king of poets"), an epithet possibly awarded to him by his patron Yashovarman.[3]Kalhana'sRajatarangini suggests that both Vakpati andBhavabhuti were court poets of Lalitaditya.[4] Vakpati's reference to Bhavabhuti inGaudavaho suggests that Bhavabhuti was not alive whenGaudavaho was composed. He appears to have been younger than Bhavabhuti, and probably a pupil or admirer of Bhavabhuti.[5]
Vakpati was well-versed with the works of earlier poets such asBhasa,Kalidasa, andSubandhu.[3] He highly praised the Prakrit language, and composed two poems in it: Mahumaha-viyayo (Madhumatha-vijaya) andGaudavaho. The first poem, which was composed earlier, is alost work: Vakpati describes it as far superior toGaudavaho.[3]
Vallabhadeva'sSubhashitavali suggests that his father's name was Harsha-deva; a verse is attributed to Harsha-deva inSubhashita Ratna Bhandagara. Soddhala'sUdaya-sundari-katha states that Vakpati was born in a royal family. A verse inHalayudha's commentary onPingala's work also suggests that Vakpati was a prince as well as a poet. However, a note on Halayudha's verse inDasharupavaloka states that the Vakpati referred to here is to the 10th centuryParamara kingVakpati Munja. A verse inYashas-tilaka states that Vakpati-raja was imprisoned by Yashovarman, and composed his poem in the prison.[6]
Bappabhatti-Suri-Charita, a biography of theJain leaderBappabhatti-suri, claims that Vakpati was born in the Paramara royal family, and was imprisoned by king "Yashodharma". Vakpati wroteGaudavaho in prison, and impressed by his poetic merit, Yashodharma freed him. Vakpati was a good friend of Bappabhatti, and converted fromBrahmanism toŚvetāmbara sect of Jainism. A similar story is narrated in other Jain works, including Rajashekhara Suri'sPrabandha Kosha and Prabhachandra Suri'sPrabhavaka-charita. However, these works wrongly state thatMahumaha-vijayo was composed afterGaudavaho. Also, these stories do not allude to any association between Vakpati and Yashovarman: instead, they state that Vakpati was patronized byĀma, who is described as a son of Yashovarman. These Jain accounts can be dismissed as unreliable: they are mostly fabrications, aimed at showing how Bappabhatti was able to convert notable people including Vakpati to Jainism.[7]
Gaudavaho is organized in form of verses (gathas) grouped intokulikas orkulakas (group of verses with one theme, idea, or topic).[8] But, it is not divided into cantos or chapters: this form was later adopted by Kutuhala forLilavati.[3] Pandit's critical edition contains 1209 verses, plus another 26 verses in the appnedix.[9]
The language ofGaudavaho can be described asMaharashtri Prakrit.[10] Vakpati's poetic style appears to be a mixture of "Gaudi" and "Vidarbhi", more of "Gaudi".[11] The poem usesArya andGathametres, except in verses 60 and 61, which use the Samagalitaka metre.[2]
In the 1870s, German IndologistGeorg Bühler came across a manuscript ofGaudavaho at the Jaina Bhandara,Jaisalmer. He requested Indian scholar Shankar Pandurang Pandit to work on acritical edition of the text. Pandit consulted three more manuscripts from theJaina collections of western India, as well as Haripala'sSanskrit language commentary onGaudavaho. His critical edition - Bombay Sanskrit and Prakrit Series #34 - was published in 1887.[3]
In 1927, N. B. Utgikar released a reprint of Pandit's edition, with notes from Bühler and Jacobi.[12]
In 1975, Narhari Govind Suru came up with an updated critical edition with an English translation. This edition incorporated 26 additionalgathas into the main text without translation; Pandit's edition included thesegathas in the appendix.[13]
The poem's title suggests that the slaying of the Gauda king would be its major theme. However, the surviving text mentions the incident only once.[9] Out of more than 1200 verses, only 3 or 4 verses describe the conflict with the Gauda king.[14] Moreover, the lastgatha states that the life of the king "will now be narrated", asking the audience to listen.[9]
Scholars such asJohannes Hertel and N. B. Utgikar regard the surviving text as a complete work, and believe that Vakpati had no intention of writing more. According to Utgikar, the last part of the poem refers to the composition of the preceding verses. The prominence of "Gauda" in the title of the poem can be attributed to the staunch rivalry between Yashovarman and the king of Gauda.[15]
Other scholars, such as Pandit and Bühler, theorize that the surviving text ofGaudavaho is only a prelude to the larger work that Vakpati planned to write, but possibly could not complete.[16] Thecolophon of three manuscripts describes the surviving text ofGaudavaho askatha-pitham (Prakrit:kahāvīḍhaṃ in two manuscripts,gāhāvīḍhaṃ in another). Bühler notes thatkatha-pitham is the title of the introductory parts ofSomadeva'sKatha-sarit-sagara and Kshemendra'sBrhat-katha-manjari, both of which are Sanskrit-language adaptations ofBrihatkatha.[14]
Hermann Jacobi opposes this theory, stating that the surviving text is too large to have formed only a prelude of a larger work, and the poet would not have included the best part of his work (such as descriptions of natural scenery) in a prelude. Jacobi theorizes that the surviving text is an abridgement of Vakpati's complete text: the later redactors seem to discarded the parts that were not of interest to poets.[17] This may also explain why the number of verses differs between manuscripts: the largest manuscript has 133 more verses than the shortest one.[18] Jacobi notes that Haripala's commentary onGaudavaho is titledHaripala-Virachita-Gaudavadha-Sara-Tika ("Commentary on theepitome of Gaudavaho, written by Haripala"). This suggests that the manuscript available to Haripala contained only an abridged version (sāra or epitome) of Gaudavaho.[18]Moriz Winternitz also regards the surviving text as a summary of a longer poem.[19]
N. G. Suru disagrees with Jacobi, stating that several post-Kalidasa poets enjoyed voluminous writing, focusing on quantity over quality. Therefore, it is possible that Vakpati planned to write a very large poem, although he may have not been able to finish it. He may have included the description of natural scenery in the prelude, because he intended to focus on the main theme (the killing of the Gauda king) in the subsequent parts of the poem. Suru states that the different number of verses in various manuscripts may result from preferences of the copyists. Suru further argues that Haripala wrote a commentary on the manuscript with the least number of verses, and he himself admits that he is commenting on an earlier part ofGaudavaho.[20]
The last verse in two manuscripts ofGaudavaho, written in theupajati metre, suggests that the work is finished. Suru regards this verse as an addition by the copyists, noting that it refers to the completion of thekatha-pitham (prelude). If it referred to the completion ofGaudavaho, it would be in contradiction with the preceding verse, which states that the story of the king will now be told.[21]
According to theKashmiri poetKalhana'sRajatarangini, Yashovarman was defeated by and became a vassal of the Kashmiri kingLalitaditya.[4] Yashovarman's defeat may have prevented Vakpati from completing his work.[22][23] IndologistA.K. Warder theorizes that theGaudavaho may have been composed after Yashovarman's defeat against Lalitaditya, as the poem features an "atmosphere of nostalgia" with "bitter verses on good and evil, on the vanity of the present age when success is reserved for mediocrity and jealously withheld from excellence."[24]
Vakpati invokes several gods in the first 61 verses. He starts withBrahma, and then refers toVishnu and his incarnations includingNarasimha,Varaha,Vamana,Kurma,Mohini, andKrishna.[25] Next, the poet invokesShiva and his aspects such asArdhanarishvara. He then refers to Shiva's sonKartikeya, and Shiva's consortParvati, naming her various aspects includingMahishasura Mardini,Kali, andChamunda. He further invokesSaraswati,Surya,Shesha,Ganapati,Lakshmi, andKama, andGanga.[26][27]
What is real is made to look unreal and the unreal looks perfectly real, while sometimes the thing is pictured exactly as it stands. Such are the ways of good poets.
In the next 36 verses, Vakpati talks about poets, their impact, their challenges, the language used by them (Sanskri or Prakrit), their aspirations, and their disappointments.[29]
Vakpati then glorifies his patron Yashovarman, calling him the Lord of the Earth, deifying him as an incarnation of Vishnu. He states that the king of gods -Indra - invites Yashovarman to share his throne.[30] The poet then describes a mythological episode of how Indra cut the wings of the flying mountains.[31] Next, Vakpati talks about Yashovarman's courtesans playing water-sports in the bathing tanks of defeated enemies. He then describespralaya, the periodic dissolution of the world, stating that its sole survivor - Vishnu - had incarnated as Yashovarman.[32] The next 10 verses describe the pitiful condition of the widows of the enemy kings.[33]
Vakpati then states that after Yashovarman'scoronation ceremony, as soon as the rainy season ended, the king launched a campaign for world conquest. The gods, the celestial nymphs, and the bards celebrated this event. Yashovarman's army comprised four units: infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants: Vakpati describes the horses and elephants in more detail.[33]
You strike terror even with these pillars decorated with cloth dyed red, prominently displaying, as it were, circular heaps of flesh (from animals) butchered for your offering.
The poet then describes the winter season, stating that Yashovarman marched to theShona river and then to theVindhya mountains. There, the Shabara tribals directed him to the temple of the goddessVindhyavasini. The king worshipped the goddess, and Vakpati describes these ceremonies and the goddess in great detail. He uses various names for the goddess, including Madhavi, Bhairavi, Chandi, Narayani, Shankari, Kali, Shabari, Gauri, and Tapasi.[35] Vakpati then narrates the king's thoughts upon seeing a dead body in the temple precinct.[36] Vakpati continues with poetic descriptions of the summer season, followed by that of the rainy season.[37]
Next, he describes the killing of theGauda king. The allies of the Gauda king initially deserted him and fled away, but later, they re-grouped and joined him on the battlefield. Yashovarman defeated them in a fierce fight, seized the fleeing Gauda king, and killed him.[38]
Yashovarman then marched along the coast, and defeated the Vanga king.[38] He proceeded to the South, where the southern king cordially submitted before him. His army crossed theMalaya Mountains, and reached the sea shore, whereVali andRavana once roamed about. Yashovarman then defeated theParasikas in a fierce battle as part of his world-conquest, just like Raghu had done in the past (a reference to Kalidasa'sRaghuvaṃśa).[39] He marched to the western mountain ranges, and collected tribute from the local rulers. Vakpati narrates how the ancient kingPṛthu had leveled the mountains, which had now grown in size.[40]
Vakpati states that Yashovarman then arrived on the banks of the riverNarmada, and encamped there. The poet personalizes the river, and describes her love for the royal sageKartavirya. Next, the king visited the sea shore, and stayed at the site of thechurning of the ocean. His army then marched across the desert region ofMaru-desha (Marwar).[41]
Vakpati then describes Yashovarman's arrival in the suburbs of the Shrikantha (Thanesar) city, where the ancient kingJanamejaya had performed asnake sacrifice ceremony to avenge his father's death. The poet provides a graphic description of the ceremony.[42] The king then moved toKurukshetra, where he enjoyed water-sports with his lovers in a famous lake, which was the site of the fight betweenBhima andDuryodhana. Vakpati alludes to episodes from theMahabharata, including the fight betweenKarna andArjuna.[43]
According to the poet, Yashovarman then visitedAyodhya and built a "palatial temple" there in one day. Vakpati narrates how the gods transported the city of Ayodhya to heaven as requested by the ancient kingHarishchandra.[44] After Ayodhya, the king proceeded to the slopes of theMandara mountain, where the local rich people offered him gifts. His army then proceeded northwards, and visited theHimalayan region, including the vicinity of theKailasa mountain. Vakpati describes the natural scenery, as seen by the king's army, in detail.[45] He then describes the pitiful state of the kings subjugated by Yashovarman.[46]
They look beautiful with a pair of their rounded breasts, swelling at the prospect of getting from their lover a close embrace, which look very much like a pair of wheels of theKamadeva's chariot heading towards their lover.
Vakpati then describes erotic scenes involving the army soldiers and their wives after the end of the expedition.[48] He then narrates how panegyrists glorified the king using poetic exaggerations and described how the king's lovers undressed before they got into bed with him. Vakpati mentions that now the king focused solely on love-making. The wives of the king of Magadha (or Gauda) were made to wavefly-whisks over the king, like the slave girls, and cried at their plight.[49] The poet then describes the king's love scenes and playful activities with his lovers.[50] Next, he narrates the grooming and make-up activities of these ladies after bath.[51]
The poet then provides an autobiographical note, stating that he held the title "Kavi-raja" (king of poets), and that poet Kamalayudha highly respected him. He describes his work as "spray particles of poetic nectar churned out from the ocean ofBhavabhuti's works". He enjoyed reading the works of poets such asBhasa, Jvalanamitra, Kuntideva,Kalidasa,Subandhu, and Harichandra. He also enjoyed reading scritpures, works on grammar andmimamsa, prosody,Bharata'sNatya Shastra, Gautama'sNyaya Sutras, lgendary texts (such as theRamayana and theMahabharata), and the works of other excellent poets. Vakpati then praises himself, calling his poetic speech "full of sentiment, full of substance, brilliant and solid in thought".[1]
Vakpati then describes what led him to composeGaudavaho. He states that one day, in the assembly, the audience requested him to tell them about king Yashovarman, especially the slaying of the Gauda king. Vakpati praises the king, calling him a manifestation of the godVishnu.[52]
Men who have acquired great merits look down upon great Lakshmi (the goddess of wealth) as most insignificant, and of no consequence. Hence is Lakshmi's hatred and hostility towards merits, not without reason, of course.
Vakpati then devotes 150 verses to describe the "dry and insipid worldly life" of his period, venting out his frustrations about sycophancy of courtiers, nepotism, fraud, poverty, stinginess of rich people, lack of respect for the non-wealthy, and general wickedness in the society.[54] The poet then states that in this sordid world, it would be rewarding to hear about king Yashovarman's virtues.[55] He then glorifies the king, narrating how godShiva tested him by appearing as a lion before him, calling him as an incarnation of Vishnu multiple times, and describing him as a member of thelunar dynasty.[56]
Vakpati states that now "Gaudavaho, a big enterprise" will be narrated. The assembly then disperses to meet the next morning.[56] The poet describes the sunset and the moon-rise. He states that he decided to sleep, finding himself unable to continue narrating the king's exploits because doing so incorrectly would weaken the king's glory.[57] However, he did not get sleep, and used the night to compose 42 verses describing love scenes involving young women applying make-up, couples flirting and drinking wine together, hugging and kissing, enjoyment of sex, and sleep afterwards. He then describes the end of the night and the sunrise.[58]
After waking up and finishing his morning routine, Vakpati prepares to narrate the king's life, describing it as similar to the life ofChanakya. A great assembly of gods,nymphs, men, women, and birds gathers in an open auditorium (as had happened in Bhavabhuti's playUttararamacarita).[58] As Vakpati starts his narration, there is perfect silence. He states that he is now going to talk about the king's life, and asks the audience to listen.[2]
Gaudavaho isprashasti-kavya, aimed at glorifying Vakpati's patron, king Yashovarman.[9] The surviving text of the poem does not contain much historical narrative: it focuses more on mythological episodes, and on other topics found commonly inmahakavyas, such as natural scenery and march of armies.[32]
HistorianV. V. Mirashi callsGaudavaho "mostly a fictionalised piece" that does not name any of the defeated kings, and appears to be modeled on Kalidasa'sRaghuvaṃśa andHarishena's panegyric onSamudragupta. That said, Yashovarman's subjugation of the eastern king ofGauda orMagadha appears to be a true event.[59] According to commentator Haripala, as well as several later scholars, the text uses the terms "Magadha king" and "Gauda king" to refer to the same person. According to this theory, during Yashovarman's time, Magadha was a part of Gauda, or vice versa.[60] According to Mirashi, the defeated king was probably Jivitagupta II, the last known ruler of theLater Gupta dynasty. An inscription found atNalanda in Magadha describes Yashovarman as a famous king who destroyed all his enemies with his sword.[59] Shyam Manohar Mishra, relying on Jain texts, believes that the kings of Gauda and Magadha were two different persons, and the Gauda king was named Dharma.[60] Amita Bhattacharya notes that in the poem, learned people request Vakpati to narrate the killing of "the lord of the Magadhas" and Vakpati's reply refers to "the king of the Gaudas". This suggests that the poet identified the king of Gauda with the king of Magadha.[61] Bhattacharya identifies the defeated king as Vishnugupta, the father of Jivitagupta II, and states that the Gauda region may have been a part of the Later Gupta kingdom at the time.[62]