Garlic (Allium sativum) is aspecies ofbulbousflowering plants in thegenusAllium. Its close relatives include theonion,shallot,leek,chives,[2]Welsh onion, andChinese onion.[3] It is native toCentral Asia,South Asia, and northeasternIran.[4][5] It has long been used as a seasoning and culinary ingredient worldwide, with a history of several thousand years of human consumption and use, including use intraditional medicine. It was known toancient Egyptians[6] and other ancient cultures for which its consumption has had a significant culinary cultural impact, especially across the Mediterranean region and across parts of Asia.[7][8][9] It is produced globally, but the largest producer isChina, which produced 73% of the world's supply of garlic in 2021. There are two subspecies and hundreds of varieties of garlic.
Garlic is aperennial flowering plant that is native toCentral Asia,South Asia and northeasternIran.[4][5] and grows from abulb. It has a tall, erect flowering stem that grows up to 1 m (3 ft). The leaf blade is flat, linear, solid, and approximately 1.25–2.5 cm (0.5–1.0 in) wide, with an acute apex. The plant may produce pink to purple flowers from July to September in the Northern Hemisphere. The bulb has a strong odor and is typically made up of 10 to 20 cloves. The cloves close to the center are symmetrical, and those surrounding the center can be asymmetrical. Each clove is enclosed in an inner sheathing leaf surrounded by layers of outer sheathing leaves.[10] If garlic is planted at the proper time and depth, it can be grown as far north as Alaska.[11] It produceshermaphroditic flowers. It ispollinated by butterflies, moths, and other insects.[12]
Thephytochemicals responsible for the sharp flavor of garlic are produced when the plant'scells are damaged. When a cell is broken by chopping, chewing, or crushing, enzymes stored in cellvacuoles trigger the breakdown of several sulfur-containing compounds stored in the cell fluids (cytosol).[13] The resultant compounds are responsible for the sharp or hot taste and strong smell of garlic. Some of the compounds are unstable and continue to react over time.[14]
Among alliums, garlic has by far the highest concentrations of initial reaction products, making garlic much more potent than onion, shallot, orleeks.[14] Although many humans enjoy the taste of garlic, these compounds are believed to have evolved as adefensive mechanism, deterring animals such as birds, insects, and worms from eating the plant.[15]
A large number of sulfur compounds contribute to the smell and taste of garlic. Allicin has been found to be the compound most responsible for the "hot" sensation of raw garlic. This chemical opens thermo-transient receptor potential channels that are responsible for the burning sense of heat in foods. The process of cooking garlic removes allicin, thus mellowing its spiciness.[15] Allicin, along with its decomposition productsdiallyl disulfide anddiallyl trisulfide, are major contributors to the characteristic odor of garlic, with other allicin-derived compounds, such asvinyldithiins and ajoene.[2]
Identification of the wild progenitor of common garlic is difficult due to the sterility of its manycultivars, which limits the ability tocross test with wild relatives.[citation needed][a] Genetically and morphologically, garlic is most similar to the wild speciesAllium longicuspis, which grows in central and southwestern Asia.[18][19][20] However, becauseA. longicuspis is also mostly sterile, it is doubtful that it is the ancestor ofA. sativum.[18] Other candidates that have been suggested includeA. tuncelianum,A. macrochaetum, andA. truncatum, all of which are native to theMiddle East.[18]
Allium sativum grows in the wild in areas where it has becomenaturalized. The "wild garlic", "crow garlic", and "field garlic" ofBritain are members of the speciesA. ursinum,A. vineale, andA. oleraceum, respectively. In North America,A. vineale (known as "wild garlic" or "crow garlic") andAllium canadense (known as "meadow garlic", "wild garlic", or "wild onion") are commonweeds in fields.[21] So-calledelephant garlic is actually a wild leek (A. ampeloprasum) and not a true garlic.Single clove garlic (also called pearl or solo garlic) originated in theYunnan province of China.
There are twosubspecies ofA. sativum,[22] ten major groups ofvarieties, and hundreds of varieties, or cultivars.
A. sativum var.ophioscorodon (Link) Döll, calledOphioscorodon or hardneck garlic, includes porcelain garlics, rocambole garlic, and purple stripe garlics. It is sometimes considered to be a separate species,Allium ophioscorodon G.Don.
A. sativum var.sativum, or softneck garlic, includes artichoke garlic, silverskin garlic, and creole garlic.
There are at least 120 cultivars originating fromCentral Asia, making it the main center of garlic biodiversity.[23]
Garlic plants are usuallyhardy and not affected by many pests or diseases. Garlic plants are said to repelrabbits andmoles.[3] TheCalifornia Department of Food and Agriculture conducts a certification program to assure freedom fromnematode and white rot disease caused byStromatinia cepivora, two pathogens that can both destroy a crop and remain in the soil indefinitely once introduced.[19] Garlic may also suffer frompink root, a typically non-fatal disease that stunts the roots and turns them pink or red;[26] orleek rust, which usually appears as bright orange spots.[27] The larvae of theleek moth attack garlic by mining into the leaves or bulbs.[28]
Botrytis neck and bulb rot is a disease ofonion, garlic,leek andshallot.Botrytis allii andBotrytis aclada cause this disease in onion andBotrytis porri causes it in garlic. According to the University of California,
Initial symptoms usually begin at the neck, where affected tissue softens, becomes water-soaked, and turns brown. In a humid atmosphere, a gray and feltlike growth (where spores are produced) appears on rotting scales, andmycelia may develop between scales. Dark-brown-to-black sclerotia (the resting bodies of the pathogen) may eventually develop in the neck or between scales.[29]
Garlic is easy to cultivate and may grow year-round in mild climates.[27] While sexual propagation of garlic is possible, nearly all of the garlic in cultivation is propagatedasexually by planting individual cloves in the ground.[19] In colder climates, cloves are best planted about six weeks before the soil freezes. The goal is to have the bulbs produce only roots and no shoots above the ground.[30]Harvest is in late spring or early summer.
Garlic plants can be grown closely together, leaving enough space for thebulbs to mature, and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth. Garlic does well in loose, dry, well-drained soils in sunny locations, and is hardy throughoutUSDA climate zones 4–9. When selecting garlic for planting, it is important to pick large bulbs from which to separate cloves. Large cloves, along with proper spacing in the planting bed, will also increase bulb size. Garlic plants prefer to grow in a soil with a highorganic material content, but are capable of growing in a wide range of soil conditions andpH levels.[19]
There are different varieties of garlic, most notably split into the subspecies of hardneck garlic and softneck garlic.[27] Thelatitude where the garlic is grown affects the choice of type, as garlic can be day-length sensitive. Hardneck garlic is generally grown in cooler climates and produces relatively large cloves, whereas softneck garlic is generally grown closer to the equator and produces small, tightly packed cloves.[27]
Garlicscapes are removed to focus all the garlic's energy into bulb growth. The scapes can be eaten raw or cooked.[31][32]
The method of propagating garlic from planting cloves is calleddivision. Asexual propagation of garlic for production purposes requires cool temperatures that can vary depending on the cultivar. Hardneck varieties require long cold temperature exposure where as softneck varieties thrive in milder climates. This cold climate is required for the process ofvernalization, a form ofstratification of the cloves necessary for the development of multiple-clove bulbs.[33]Solo garlic is the result of garlic grown without the process of vernalization.
The scent of garlic is known to linger upon the human body and cause bad breath (halitosis) and body odor.[10] This is caused byallyl methyl sulfide (AMS). AMS is a volatile liquid which is absorbed into the blood during the metabolism of garlic-derived sulfur compounds; from the blood it travels to the lungs[2] (and from there to the mouth, causinggarlic breath) and skin, where it is exuded through skin pores. Since digestion takes several hours, and release of AMS several hours more, the effect of eating garlic may be present for a long time.[2] Washing the skin with soap is only a partial and imperfect solution to the smell. Studies have shown sipping milk at the same time as consuming garlic can significantly neutralize bad breath.[35] Mixing garlic with milk in the mouth before swallowing reduced the odor better than drinking milk afterward.[35] Plain water, mushrooms, and basil may also reduce the odor; the mix of fat and water found in milk, however, was the most effective.[35] Garlic breath is allegedly alleviated by eating freshparsley.
Abundant sulfur compounds in garlic are also responsible for turning garlic green or blue during pickling and cooking. Under these conditions (i.e., acidity, heat) the sulfur-containing compoundalliin reacts with commonamino acids to makepyrroles, clusters of carbon-nitrogen rings.[36][37] These rings can be linked together intopolypyrrole molecules. Ring structures absorb particular wavelengths of light and thus appear colored. The two-pyrrole molecule looks red, the three-pyrrole molecule looks blue, and the four-pyrrole molecule looks green (likechlorophyll, a tetrapyrrole). Like chlorophyll, the pyrrole pigments are safe to eat.[38] Upon cutting, similar to a color change inonion caused by reactions of amino acids with sulfur compounds,[39] garlic can turn green.[40][41]
The green, dry "folds" in the center of the garlic clove are especiallypungent. The sulfur compoundallicin, produced by crushing or chewing fresh garlic,[10] produces other sulfur compounds:ajoene, allyl polysulfides, andvinyldithiins.[2] Aged garlic lacks allicin, but may have some activity due to the presence of S-allylcysteine.
Some people suffer fromallergies to garlic and other species ofAllium.[2] Symptoms can includeirritable bowel,diarrhea, mouth and throat ulcerations,nausea, breathing difficulties, and, in rare cases,anaphylaxis.[10] Garlic-sensitive people show positive tests todiallyl disulfide, allylpropyldisulfide, allylmercaptan, and allicin, all of which are present in garlic. People who suffer from garlic allergies are often sensitive to many other plants, including onions,chives, leeks, shallots, garden lilies,ginger, andbananas.[citation needed]
Several reports of serious burns resulting from garlic being appliedtopically for various purposes, including naturopathic uses andacne treatment, indicate care must be taken for these uses, usually testing a small area of skin using a low concentration of garlic.[42] On the basis of numerous reports of such burns, including burns to children, topical use of raw garlic, as well as insertion of raw garlic into body cavities, is discouraged.[10] In particular, topical application of raw garlic to young children is not advisable.[43]
The side effects of long-term garlic supplementation are largely unknown.[10] Possible side effects include gastrointestinal discomfort, sweating, dizziness, allergic reactions, bleeding, and menstrual irregularities.[44]
Some breastfeeding mothers have found, after consuming garlic, that their babies can be slow to feed, and have noted a garlic odor coming from them.[10][45]
Because of sulfur compounds circulating in blood, consumed garlic may act as amosquito repellent, although there is no scientific evidence of its efficacy.[50]
In the typical serving size of 1–3 cloves (3–9 grams), raw garlic provides no significant nutritional value, with the content of allessential nutrients below 10% of theDaily Value (DV). In a reference amount of 100 g (3.5 oz), raw garlic contains somemicronutrients in rich amounts (20% or more of the DV), including vitaminsB6 (73% DV) andC (35% DV), and thedietary mineral,manganese (73% DV). Per 100 gram serving, raw garlic is a moderate source (10–19% DV) of theB vitamins,thiamin andpantothenic acid, as well as the dietary minerals,calcium,potassium,phosphorus, andzinc.
Garlic bulbs and cloves for sale at the Or Tor Kor market inBangkokA garlic bulb
Garlic is widely used around the world for its pungent flavor as a seasoning orcondiment.
The garlic plant'sbulb is the most commonly used part of the plant. With the exception of the single clove types, garlic bulbs are normally divided into numerous fleshy sections called cloves. Garlic cloves are used for consumption (raw or cooked) or for medicinal purposes. They have a characteristicpungent, spicy flavor that mellows and sweetens considerably with cooking.[51] The distinctive aroma is mainly due toorganosulfur compounds includingallicin present in fresh garlic cloves andajoene which forms when they are crushed or chopped. A further metaboliteallyl methyl sulfide is responsible for garlic breath.[52][53][54][55]
Other parts of the garlic plant are also edible. Theleaves andflowers (bulbils) on the head (spathe) are sometimes eaten. They are milder in flavor than the bulbs,[3] and are most often consumed while immature and still tender. Immature garlic is sometimes pulled, rather like a scallion, and sold as "green garlic".[56] When green garlic is allowed to grow past the "scallion" stage, but not permitted to fully mature, it may produce a garlic "round", a bulb like a boiling onion, but not separated into cloves like a mature bulb.[57]
Inedible or rarely eaten parts of the garlic plant include the "skin" covering each clove and root cluster. The papery, protective layers of "skin" over various parts of the plant are generally discarded during preparation for most culinary uses, though inKorea immature whole heads are sometimes prepared with the tender skins intact.[58] The root cluster attached to thebasal plate of the bulb is the only part not typically considered palatable in any form.
An alternative is to cut the top off the bulb, coat the cloves by dribblingolive oil (or other oil-based seasoning) over them, androast them in an oven. Garlic softens and can be extracted from the cloves by squeezing the (root) end of the bulb, or individually by squeezing one end of the clove. In Korea, heads of garlic are heated over the course of several weeks; the resulting product, calledblack garlic, is sweet and syrupy, and is exported to the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia.
Garlic may be applied to different kinds of bread, usually in a medium of butter or oil, to create a variety of classic dishes, such asgarlic bread,garlic toast,bruschetta,crostini, andcanapé. The flavor varies in intensity and aroma with the different cooking methods. It is often paired withonion,tomato, orginger.
Immature scapes are tender and edible. They are also known as "garlic spears", "stems", or "tops". Scapes generally have a milder taste than the cloves. They are often used in stir frying or braised like asparagus.[32] Garlic leaves are a popular vegetable in many parts of Asia. The leaves are cut, cleaned, and then stir-fried with eggs, meat, or vegetables.
Garlic powder is made from dehydrated garlic and can be used as a substitute for fresh garlic, though the taste is not quite the same.Garlic salt combines garlic powder with table salt.
Garlic is a fundamental component in many or most dishes of various regions, including eastern Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, northern Africa,southern Europe,Eastern Europe and parts of Latin America.[59] Latin American seasonings, particularly, use garlic insofritos andmofongos.[60]
Oils can be flavored with garlic cloves. These infused oils are used to season all categories ofvegetables, meats, breads, andpasta. Garlic, along withfish sauce, chopped fresh chilis,lime juice, sugar, and water, is a basic essential item indipping fish sauce, a highly used dipping sauce condiment used inIndochina. InEast andSoutheast Asia,chili oil with garlic is a populardipping sauce, especially for meat and seafood.Tuong ot toi Viet Nam (Vietnam chili garlic sauce) is a highly popular condiment and dip across North America and Asia.
In some cuisines, the young bulbs are pickled for three to six weeks in a mixture of sugar, salt, and spices. In eastern Europe, the shoots are pickled and eaten as an appetizer.Laba garlic, prepared by soaking garlic invinegar, is a type of pickled garlic served withdumplings in northern China to celebrate theChinese New Year.[2]
Garlic is essential in Middle Eastern and Arabic cooking, with its presence in many food items. In theLevant, garlic is traditionally crushed together with olive oil, and occasionally salt, to create a Middle Eastern garlic sauce calledToum (تُوم; meaning "garlic" in Arabic). While not exclusively served with meats, toum is commonly paired with chicken or other meat dishes such asshawarma. Garlic is also a key component in somehummus varieties, an Arabic dip composed of chickpeas, tahini, garlic, lemon juice, and salt.
Lightlysmoked garlic is used in British and other European cuisine. It is particularly prized for stuffing poultry and game, and in soups and stews.
Emulsifying garlic with olive oil producesaioli. Garlic, oil, and a chunky base produceskordalia. Crushed garlic, oil, and water produce a strong flavored sauce,mujdei. Blending garlic,almond, oil, and soaked bread producesajoblanco.Tzatziki, yogurt mixed with garlic and salt, is a common sauce in Eastern Mediterranean cuisines.
Numerous cuneiform records show that garlic has been cultivated inMesopotamia for at least 4,000 years.[18] The use of garlic in China and Egypt also dates back thousands of years.[2][18] Well-preserved garlic was found in the tomb ofTutankhamun (c. 1325BC).[18] It was consumed by ancientGreek andRoman soldiers, sailors, and rural classes (Virgil,Eclogues ii. 11), and, according toPliny the Elder (Natural History xix. 32), by the African peasantry. Garlic was placed by the ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at crossroads, as a supper forHecate (Theophrastus,Characters, The Superstitious Man).[61]
Garlic was rare in traditionalEnglish cuisine (though it is said to have been grown in England before 1548) but has been a common ingredient in Mediterranean Europe.[62] Translations of thec. 1300Assize of Weights and Measures, an English statute generally dated to the 13th century, indicate a passage as dealing with standardized units of garlic production, sale, and taxation—thehundred of 15ropes of 15 heads each[63]—but the Latin version of the text may refer toherring rather than garlic.[64]
Domestically, garlic is stored warm [above 18°C (64°F)] and dry to keep it dormant (to inhibit sprouting). It is traditionally hung; softneck varieties are often braided in strands called plaits orgrappes. Peeled cloves may be stored inwine orvinegar in the refrigerator.[65] Commercially, garlic is stored at 0°C (32°F), in a dry, low-humidity environment. Garlic will keep longer if the tops remain attached.[19]
Garlic is often kept in oil to produce flavored oil; however, the practice requires measures to be taken to prevent the garlic from spoiling which may include rancidity and growth ofClostridium botulinum.[66] Acidification with a mild solution of vinegar minimizes bacterial growth.[66] Refrigeration does not assure the safety of garlic kept in oil, requiring use within one month to avoid bacterial spoilage.[66] Garlic is also dried at low temperatures, to preserve the enzymatic activity and sold and kept as garlic granules, and can be rehydrated to reactivate it.[67]
Stored garlic can be affected byPenicillium decay known as "blue mold" (or "green mold" in some locales), especially in high humidity.[68] Infection may first appear as soft or water-soaked spots, followed by white patches (of mycelium) which turn blue or green withsporulation.[69] As sporulation andgermination are delayed at low temperature, and at −4 °C are inhibited entirely,[70] in refrigerated cloves one may only see the white mycelium during early stages.Penicillium hirsutum[71] andPenicillium allii[72] are two of the predominant species identified in blue mold.
A 2014 review found insufficient evidence to determine the effects of garlic in preventing or treating thecommon cold.[83] Other reviews concluded a similar absence of high-quality evidence for garlic having a significant effect on the common cold.[44][84]
Garlic has been used for traditional medicine in diverse cultures such as in Korea, Egypt, Japan, China, Rome, and Greece.[10][44] In hisNatural History,Pliny gave alist of conditions in which garlic was considered beneficial (N.H. xx. 23).Galen, writing in the second century, eulogized garlic as the "rustic's theriac" (cure-all) (see F. Adams'Paulus Aegineta, p. 99).Alexander Neckam, a writer of the 12th century (see Wright's edition of his works, p. 473, 1863), discussed it as apalliative for the heat of the sun in field labor. In the 17th century,Thomas Sydenham valued it as an application in confluentsmallpox, andWilliam Cullen'sMateria Medica of 1789 found somedropsies cured by it alone.[61][85]
The sticky juice within the bulb cloves is used as anadhesive in mending glass and porcelain.[3] An environmentally benign garlic-derived polysulfide product is approved for use in the European Union (under Annex 1 of 91/414) and the UK as anematicide andinsecticide, including for use in the control ofcabbage root fly andred mite in poultry.[86]
Garlic is present in thefolklore of many cultures. In Europe, many cultures have used garlic for protection orwhite magic, perhaps owing to its reputation infolk medicine.[44] Central European folk beliefs considered garlic a powerful ward againstdemons,werewolves, andvampires. To ward off vampires, garlic could be worn, hung in windows, or rubbed on chimneys and keyholes.[87][88]
In celebration ofNowruz (Persian calendar New Year), garlic is one of the essential items in aHaft-sin ("seven things beginning with 'S'") table, a traditional New Year's display: the name for garlic inPersian is سیر (seer), which begins with "س" (sin, pronounced "seen") thePerso-Arabic letter corresponding to "S".[90]
InIslam, it is recommended not to eat raw garlic prior to going to the mosque. This is based on severalhadith.[91][92]
SomeMahāyāna Buddhists and sects inChina andVietnam avoid eating onions, garlic, scallions, chives and leeks, which are known asWu hun ((Chinese:五葷;pinyin:Wǔ hūn), 'the five forbidden pungent vegetables').[93]
Because of its strong odor, garlic is sometimes called the "stinking rose".
^Fertility restoration in garlic strains have been successful by physiological manipulation in some strains, but there do exist ones that are completely male-sterile due to genetic factors.[16] Hybrids have been experimentally produced.[17]
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^Rutledge, C. Roxanne; Day, Jonathan F. (August 8, 2014)."Mosquito Repellents". University of Florida IFAS Extension.Archived from the original on December 19, 2012.
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^Ruffhead, Owen, ed. (1763a),The Statutes at Large, vol. I: From Magna Charta to the End of the Reign of King Henry the Sixth. To which is prefixed, A Table of the Titles of all the Publick and Private Statutes during that Time, London: Mark Basket for the Crown, pp. 148–149.(in English) &(in Latin) &(in Norman)
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