Agarden is a planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the cultivation, display, and enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature. The single feature identifying even the wildestwild garden iscontrol. The garden can incorporate both natural and artificial materials.[1]
Gardens often have design features including statuary,follies,pergolas,trellises,stumperies, dry creek beds, andwater features such asfountains,ponds (with or withoutfish),waterfalls or creeks. Some gardens are for ornamental purposes only, while others also produce food crops, sometimes in separate areas, or sometimes intermixed with theornamental plants. Food-producing gardens are distinguished fromfarms by their smaller scale, more labor-intensive methods, and their purpose (enjoyment of a pastime or self-sustenance rather than producing for sale, as in amarket garden).Flower gardens combine plants of different heights, colors, textures, and fragrances to create interest and delight the senses.[2]
The most common form today is a residential or public garden, but the termgarden has traditionally been a more general one.Zoos, which displaywild animals in simulated natural habitats, were formerly called zoological gardens.[3][4] Western gardens are almost universally based on plants, withgarden, which etymologically impliesenclosure, often signifying a shortened form ofbotanical garden. Some traditional types of eastern gardens, such asZen gardens, however, use plants sparsely or not at all. Landscape gardens, on the other hand, such as theEnglish landscape gardens first developed in the 18th century, may decide to omit flowers altogether.
The etymology of the wordgardening refers toenclosure: it is from Middle Englishgardin, from Anglo-Frenchgardin,jardin, of Germanic origin; akin to Old High Germangard,gart, an enclosure or compound, as inStuttgart. SeeGrad (Slavic settlement) for more complete etymology.[6] The wordsyard,court, and Latinhortus (meaning "garden", hence horticulture and orchard), are cognates—all referring to a defined enclosed space.[7]
The term "garden" inBritish English refers to a small enclosed area of land, usually adjoining a building.[8] This would be referred to as ayard inAmerican English.[9]
Naturalistic design of a Chinese garden incorporated into the landscape, including a pavilion
The earliest recorded Chinese gardens were created in the valley of theYellow River, during theShang dynasty (1600–1046 BC).[10] These gardens were large, enclosed parks where the kings and nobles hunted game, or where fruit and vegetables were grown. Early inscriptions from this period, carved on tortoise shells, have three Chinese characters for garden,you,pu andyuan.[citation needed]You was a royal garden where birds and animals were kept, whilepu was a garden for plants. During theQin dynasty (221–206 BC),yuan became the character for all gardens.[11] The old character foryuan is a small picture of a garden; it is enclosed in a square which can represent a wall, and has symbols which can represent the plan of a structure, a small square which can represent a pond, and a symbol for a plantation or a pomegranate tree.[12]
A famous royal garden of the late Shang dynasty was theTerrace, Pond and Park of the Spirit (Lingtai, Lingzhao Lingyou) built byKing Wenwang west of his capital city,Yin. The park was described in theClassic of Poetry this way:
The King was in the Sacred Park, Where does the mother deer lie at ease? The deer are sleek and bright, The cranes shine with purest white. The King makes his promenade to the Pond of the Spirit, Where fish leap full to every part.[13]
Another early royal garden wasShaqui, or theDunes of Sand, built by the last Shang ruler,King Zhou (1675–1029 BC).[14] It was composed of an earth terrace, ortai, which served as an observation platform in the center of a large square park. It was described in one of the early classics of Chinese literature, theRecords of the Grand Historian (Shiji).[15] According to theShiji, one of the most famous features of this garden was theWine Pool and Meat Forest (酒池肉林). A large pool, big enough for several small boats, was constructed on the palace grounds, with inner linings of polished oval shaped stones from the seashore. The pool was then subsequently filled with wine. A small island was constructed in the middle of the pool, where trees were planted, which had skewers of roasted meat hanging from their branches. King Zhou and his friends and concubines drifted in their boats, drinking the wine with their hands and eating the roasted meat from the trees. Later Chinese philosophers and historians cited this garden as an example of decadence and bad taste.[16]
During theSpring and Autumn period (722–481 BC), in 535 BC, theTerrace of Shanghua, with lavishly decorated palaces, was built byKing Jing of theZhou dynasty. In 505 BC, an even more elaborate garden, theTerrace of Gusu, was begun. It was located on the side of a mountain, and included a series of terraces connected by galleries, along with a lake where boats in the form of blue dragons navigated. From the highest terrace, a view extended as far asLake Tai, the Great Lake.[17]
Manasollasa is a twelfth centurySanskrit text that offers details on garden design and a variety of other subjects.[18] Both public parks and woodland gardens are described, with about 40 types of trees recommended for the park in theVana-krida chapter.[18][19]Shilparatna, a text from the sixteenth century, states that flower gardens or public parks should be located in the northern portion of a town.[20]
The earliest recorded Japanese gardens were thepleasure gardens of the Emperors and nobles.[21] They were mentioned in several brief passages of theNihon Shoki, the first chronicle of Japanese history, published in 720 CE. In spring 74 CE, the chronicle recorded: "TheEmperor Keikō put a few carp into a pond, and rejoiced to see them morning and evening". The following year, "The Emperor launched a double-hulled boat in the pond of Ijishi at Ihare, and went aboard with his imperial concubine, and they feasted sumptuously together". In 486, the chronicle recorded that "TheEmperor Kenzō went into the garden and feasted at the edge of a winding stream".[22]
Korean gardens are a type of garden described as being natural, informal, simple and unforced, seeking to merge with the natural world.[23] They have a history that goes back more than two thousand years,[24] but are little known in the west. The oldest records date to theThree Kingdoms period (57 BC – 668 AD) when architecture and palace gardens showed a development noted in the KoreanHistory of the Three Kingdoms.
Gardening was not recognized as an art form in Europe until the mid 16th century when it entered the political discourse, as a symbol of the concept of the "ideal republic".[25] Evoking utopian imagery of theGarden of Eden, a time of abundance and plenty where humans didn't know hunger or the conflicts that arose from property disputes.John Evelyn wrote in the early 17th century, "there is not a more laborious life then is that of a good Gard'ners; but a labour full of tranquility and satisfaction; Natural and Instructive, and such as (if any) contributes to Piety and Contemplation."[26] During the era ofEnclosures, the agrarian collectivism of thefeudal age was idealized in literary "fantasies of liberating regression to garden and wilderness".[27]
Following his campaign in Italy in 1495, where he saw the gardens and castles of Naples, KingCharles VIII brought Italian craftsmen andgarden designers, such asPacello da Mercogliano, from Naples and ordered the construction of Italian-style gardens at his residence at theChâteau d'Amboise and at Château Gaillard, another private résidence in Amboise. His successorHenry II, who had also travelled to Italy and had metLeonardo da Vinci, created an Italian garden nearby at theChâteau de Blois.[28] Beginning in 1528, KingFrancis I created new gardens at theChâteau de Fontainebleau, which featured fountains, parterres, a forest of pine trees brought fromProvence, and the first artificial grotto in France.[29] TheChâteau de Chenonceau had two gardens in the new style, one created forDiane de Poitiers in 1551, and a second forCatherine de' Medici in 1560.[30] In 1536, the architectPhilibert de l'Orme, upon his return from Rome, created the gardens of theChâteau d'Anet following the Italian rules of proportion. The carefully prepared harmony of Anet, with its parterres and surfaces of water integrated with sections of greenery, became one of the earliest and most influential examples of the classic French garden.[31]
TheFrench formal garden (French:jardin à la française) contrasted with the design principles of the English landscape garden (French:jardin à l'anglaise) namely, to "force nature" instead of leaving it undisturbed.[32] Typical French formal gardens had "parterres, geometrical shapes and neatly clipped topiary", in contrast to the English style of garden in which "plants and shrubs seem to grow naturally without artifice."[33] By the mid-17th centuryaxial symmetry had ascended to prominence in the French gardening traditions ofAndre Mollet andJacques Boyceau, from which the latter wrote: "All things, however beautiful they may be chosen, will be defective if they are not ordered and placed in proper symmetry."[34] A good example of the French formal style are theTuileries gardens in Paris which were originally designed during the reign of King Henry II in the mid-sixteenth century. The gardens were redesigned into the formal French style for theSun King Louis XIV. The gardens were ordered into symmetrical lines: long rows of elm or chestnut trees, clipped hedgerows, along with parterres, "reflect[ing] the orderly triumph of man's will over nature."[35]
TheFrench landscape garden was influenced by the English landscape garden and gained prominence in the late eighteenth century.[36][32]
Before theGrand Manner era, a few significant gardens were found in Britain which were developed under the influence of the continent. Britain's homegrown domestic gardening traditions were mostly practical in purpose, rather than aesthetic, unlike the grand gardens found mostly on castle grounds and less commonly in universities. Tudor Gardens emphasized contrast rather than transitions, distinguished by color and illusion. They were not intended as a complement to home or architecture, but conceived as independent spaces, arranged to grow and display flowers and ornamental plants. Gardeners demonstrated their artistry inknot gardens, with complex arrangements most commonly included interwovenbox hedges, and less commonly fragrant herbs likerosemary. Sanded paths run between the hedgings of open knots whereas closed knots were filled with single-colored flowers. The knot andparterre gardens were always placed on level ground, and elevated areas reserved for terraces from which the intricacy of the gardens could be viewed.[34]
Jacobean gardens were described as "a delightful confusion" byHenry Wotton in 1624. Under the influence of theItalian Renaissance, Caroline gardens began to shed some of the chaos of earlier designs, marking the beginning of a trends towards symmetrical unified designs that took the building architecture into account, and featuring an elevated terrace from which home and garden could be viewed. The only surviving Caroline garden is located atBolsover Castle inDerbyshire, but is too simple to attract much interest. During the reign ofCharles II, many newBaroque style country houses were built; while in England Oliver Cromwell sought to destroy many Tudor, Jacobean and Caroline style gardens.[34]
Garden design is the process of creating plans for the layout and planting of gardens andlandscapes. Gardens may be designed by garden owners themselves, or by professionals. Professional garden designers tend to be trained in principles of design andhorticulture, and have a knowledge and experience of using plants. Some professional garden designers are alsolandscape architects, a more formal level of training that usually requires an advanced degree and often an occupationallicense.
Elements of garden design include the layout of hard landscape, such as paths, rockeries, walls, water features, sitting areas and decking, as well as the plants themselves, with consideration for theirhorticultural requirements, their season-to-season appearance, lifespan,growth habit, size, speed of growth, and combinations with other plants and landscape features. Most gardens consist of a mixture of natural and constructed elements, although even very 'natural' gardens are always an inherently artificial creation. Natural elements present in a garden principally comprise flora (such as trees andweeds), fauna (such asarthropods and birds), soil, water, air and light. Constructed elements include not only paths,patios, decking, sculptures,drainage systems, lights[37] and buildings (such assheds,gazebos,pergolas andfollies), but also living constructions such asflower beds,ponds andlawns.
Garden needs of maintenance are also taken into consideration. Including the time or funds available for regular maintenance, (this can affect the choices of plants regarding speed of growth) spreading or self-seeding of the plants (annual or perennial), bloom-time, and many other characteristics. Garden design can be roughly divided into two groups, formal and naturalistic gardens. The most important consideration in any garden design is how the garden will be utilized, followed closely by the desired stylisticgenres, and the way the garden space will connect to the home or other structures in the surrounding areas. All of these considerations are subject to the budget limitations. Budget limitations can be addressed by a simpler garden style with fewer plants and less costly hard landscape materials, seeds rather than sod for lawns, and plants that grow quickly; alternatively, garden owners may choose to create their garden over time, area by area.[38]
Gardeners may cause environmental damage by the way they garden, or they may enhance their local environment.Damage by gardeners can include directdestruction of natural habitats when houses and gardens are created; indirecthabitat destruction and damage to provide garden materials such aspeat,[39] rock for rock gardens,[40] and by the use of tap water toirrigate gardens; the death of living beings in the garden itself, such as the killing not only ofslugs andsnails but also their predators such ashedgehogs andsong thrushes bymetaldehyde slug killer; the death of living beings outside the garden, such as local species extinction by indiscriminateplant collectors; andclimate change caused bygreenhouse gases produced by gardening.
Gardeners can help to prevent climate change in many ways, including the use of trees, shrubs,ground cover plants and other perennial plants in their gardens, turning garden waste intosoil organic matter instead of burning it, keeping soil and compost heaps aerated, avoiding peat, switching from power tools to hand tools or changing their garden design so that power tools are not needed, and usingnitrogen-fixing plants instead of nitrogen fertilizer.[41]
Climate change will have many impacts on gardens; some studies suggest most of them will be negative.[42] Gardens also contribute to climate change. Greenhouse gases can be produced by gardeners in many ways. The three maingreenhouse gases arecarbon dioxide,methane, andnitrous oxide. Gardeners produce carbon dioxide directly byover-cultivating soil and destroyingsoil carbon, by burning garden waste onbonfires, by using power tools which burnfossil fuel or use electricity generated byfossil fuels, and by usingpeat. Gardeners produce methane by compacting the soil and making it anaerobic, and by allowing theircompost heaps to become compacted and anaerobic. Gardeners produce nitrous oxide by applying excessnitrogen fertilizer when plants are not actively growing so that the nitrogen in the fertilizer is converted bysoil bacteria to nitrous oxide.
Some gardeners manage their gardens without using any water from outside the garden. Examples in Britain includeVentnor Botanic Garden on the Isle of Wight, and parts ofBeth Chatto's garden in Essex, Sticky Wicket garden in Dorset, and the Royal Horticultural Society's gardens atHarlow Carr andHyde Hall.Rain gardens absorb rainfall falling onto nearby hard surfaces, rather than sending it into stormwater drains.[43]
^Schur, Norman; Ehrlich, Eugene; Ehrlich, Richard (1987).British English from A to Zed: A Definitive Guide to the Queen's English.Skyhorse. p. 146.ISBN9781620875773.
^Feng Chaoxiong,The Classical Gardens of Suzhou, preface, and Bing Chiu,Jardins de Chine, ou la quete du paradis, Editions de La Martiniere, Paris 2010, p. 10–11.
^Tong Jun, Records of Jiang Gardens, cited in Feng Chanoxiong,The Classical Gardens of Suzhou.
^Translation inJardins de Chine, ou la quête du paradis, cited in Che Bing Chiu,Jardins de Chine, ou la quete du paradis, p. 11.
^abWeiss, Allan (1995).Mirrors of Infinity: The French Formal Garden and 17th-Century Metaphysics. Princeton Architectural Press. p. 15.ISBN9781568980508.
^Scurr, Ruth (2022).Napoleon: A Life in Gardens and Shadows. Vintage. p. 15.
^abcHayes, Gordon (2013).Landscape and Garden Design: Lessons from History. Whittle. pp. 1–3.ISBN978-1849950824.
^Scurr, Ruth (2022).Napoleon: A Life in Gardens and Shadows. Vintage. p. 29.
^Calder, Martin (2006).Experiencing the Garden in the Eighteenth Century. Lang. p. 9.ISBN9783039102914.
^Ingram, David S.; Vince-Prue, Daphne; Gregory, Peter J., eds. (2008).Science and the Garden: The scientific basis of horticultural practice. Oxford: Blackwell.ISBN978-1-4051-6063-6.
^Bisgrove, R.; Hadley, P. (2002). Gardening in the global greenhouse: the impacts of climate change on gardens in the UK (Report).S2CID127801132.
^Dunnett and Clayden, Nigel and Andy (2007).Rain Gardens: Managing Water Sustainably in the Garden and Designed Landscape. Portland, OR: Timber Press.ISBN978-0-88192-826-6.
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