Some historians[a] speculated that the name had to do with a group of people ofThracian origin (i.e.Getae)[13] who during theIron Age moved into the area after the Roman conquest ofDacia in 106 CE and may have formed the Lypytsia culture with theVenedi people who moved into the region at the end ofLa Tène period.[13] The Lypytsia culture supposedly replaced the existing Thracian Hallstatt (seeThraco-Cimmerian) and Vysotske cultures.[13] Some other scholars assert that the nameHalych has Slavic origins – fromhalytsa, meaning "a naked (unwooded) hill", or fromhalka which means "jackdaw".[14](The jackdaw featured as a charge in the city'scoat of arms[15]and later also in the coat of arms of Galicia-Lodomeria.[16]The name, however, predates the coat of arms, which may representcanting or simplyfolk etymology). Although Ruthenians drove out the Hungarians from Halych-Volhynia by 1221, Hungarian kings continued to addGalicia et Lodomeria to their official titles.
In 1349, in the course of theGalicia–Volhynia Wars, KingCasimir III the Great of Poland conquered the major part of Galicia and put an end to the independence of this territory. Upon the conquest Casimir adopted the following title:
Casimir by the grace of God king of Poland and Rus (Ruthenia), lord and heir of the land of Kraków, Sandomierz, Sieradz, Łęczyca, Kuyavia, Pomerania (Pomerelia).Latin:Kazimirus, Dei gratia rex Polonie et Rusie, nec non-Cracovie, Sandomirie, Siradie, Lancicie, Cuiavie, et Pomeranieque Terrarum et Ducatuum Dominus et Heres.
Under theJagiellonian dynasty (Kings of Poland from 1386 to 1572), the Kingdom of Poland revived and reconstituted its territories. In place of historic Galicia there appeared theRuthenian Voivodeship.
In 1526, after the death ofLouis II of Hungary, theHabsburgs inherited the Hungarian claims to the titles of the Kingship of Galicia and Lodomeria, together with the Hungarian crown. In 1772 the Habsburg EmpressMaria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary, used those historical claims to justify her participation in theFirst Partition of Poland. In fact, the territories acquired by Austria did not correspond exactly to those of former Halych-Volhynia – theRussian Empire took control ofVolhynia to the north-east, including the city ofVolodymyr-Volynskyi (Włodzimierz Wołyński) – after whichLodomeria was named. On the other hand, much ofLesser Poland –Nowy Sącz andPrzemyśl (1772–1918),Zamość (1772–1809),Lublin (1795–1809), andKraków (1846–1918) – became part ofAustrian Galicia. Moreover, despite the fact that Austria's claim derived from the historical Hungarian crown, "Galicia and Lodomeria" were not officially assigned to Hungary, and after theAusgleich of 1867, the territory found itself inCisleithania, or the Austrian-administered part ofAustria-Hungary.
The full official name of the new Austrian territory was theKingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria with the Duchies ofAuschwitz andZator. After the incorporation of theFree City of Kraków in 1846, it was extended toKingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, and theGrand Duchy of Kraków with the Duchies of Auschwitz and Zator (German:Königreich Galizien und Lodomerien mit dem Großherzogtum Krakau und den Herzogtümern Auschwitz und Zator).
Each of those entities was formally separate; they were listed as such in theAustrian emperor's titles, each had its distinct coat-of-arms and flag. For administrative purposes, however, they formed a single province. The duchies of Auschwitz (Oświęcim) and Zator were small historical principalities west ofKraków, on the border withPrussianSilesia.Lodomeria, under the name Volhynia, remained under the rule of the Russian Empire – seeVolhynian Governorate.
In the 12th century, thePrincipality of Galicia was formed, which merged at the end of the century with neighbouringVolhynia into theKingdom of Galicia–Volhynia. Galicia and Volhynia had originally been two separateRurikid principalities, assigned on a rotating basis to younger members of the Kievan dynasty. The line of PrinceRoman the Great ofVolodymyr had held the Principality of Volhynia, while the line ofYaroslav Osmomysl held the Principality of Galicia. Galicia–Volhynia was created following the death in 1198[20] or 1199 (and without a recognised heir in the paternal line) of the last Prince of Galicia,Vladimir II Yaroslavich; Roman acquired the Principality of Galicia and united his lands into one state. Roman's successors would mostly use Halych (Galicia) as the designation of their combined kingdom. In Roman's time Galicia–Volhynia's principal cities wereHalych and Volodymyr. In 1204, Roman capturedKyiv in alliance withPoland, signed a peace treaty with theKingdom of Hungary and established diplomatic relations with theByzantine Empire.[21]
In 1205, Roman turned against his Polish allies, leading to a conflict withLeszek the White andKonrad of Masovia. Roman was killed in theBattle of Zawichost (1205), and Galicia–Volhynia entered a period of rebellion and chaos, becoming an arena of rivalry between Poland and Hungary. KingAndrew II of Hungary styled himselfrex Galiciæ et Lodomeriæ,Latin for "king of Galicia and Vladimir [in-Volhynia]", a title that later was adopted in theHouse of Habsburg. In a compromise agreement made in 1214 between Hungary and Poland, the throne of Galicia–Volhynia was given to Andrew's son,Coloman of Lodomeria.
In 1352, when the principality was divided between Poland and theGrand Duchy of Lithuania, the territory became subject to thePolish Crown. With theUnion of Lublin in 1569, Poland and Lithuania merged to form thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which lasted for 200 years until conquered and divided up by Russia,Prussia, and Austria in the 1772partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The south-eastern part of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was awarded to the Habsburg EmpressMaria-Theresa, whose bureaucrats named it theKingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, after one of the titles of the princes of Hungary, although its borders coincided but roughly with those of the former medieval principality.[22] Known informally as Galicia, it became the largest, most populous, and northernmost province of theAustrian Empire. After 1867 it was part of theAustrian half ofAustria-Hungary, until the dissolution of the monarchy at the end ofWorld War I in 1918.
During theFirst World War, Galicia saw heavy fighting between the forces of theRussian Empire and theCentral Powers, on theEastern Front of World War I. The Russian forces overran most of the region in 1914 after defeating the Austro-Hungarian army in a chaotic frontier battle in the opening months of the war.[23] They were in turn pushed out in the spring and summer of 1915 by a combined German/Austro-Hungarian offensive.
In 1773, Galicia had about 2.6 million inhabitants in 280 cities and market towns and approximately 5,500 villages. There were nearly 19,000 noble families, with 95,000 members (about 3% of the population). Theserfs accounted for 1.86 million, more than 70% of the population. A small number were full-time farmers, but by far the overwhelming number (84%) had only smallholdings or no possessions.[citation needed]
Galicia had arguably the most ethnically diverse population of all the countries in the Austrian monarchy, consisting mainly of Poles and "Ruthenians";[27] the peoples known later asUkrainians andRusyns, as well as ethnicJews,Germans,Armenians,Czechs,Slovaks,Hungarians,Roma and others. In Galicia as a whole, the population in 1910 was estimated to be 45.4% Polish, 42.9% Ruthenian, 10.9% Jewish, and 0.8% German.[28] This population was not evenly distributed. ThePoles lived mainly in the west, with the Ruthenians predominant in the eastern region ("Ruthenia"). At the start of the twentieth century, Poles constituted 88% of the whole population of Western Galicia and Jews 7.5%. The respective data for Eastern Galicia show the following numbers: Ruthenians 64.5%, Poles 22.0%, Jews 12%.[29][30] Of the 44 administrative divisions of Austrian eastern Galicia,Lviv (Polish:Lwów,German:Lemberg) was the only one in which Poles made up a majority of the population.[31] AnthropologistMarianna Dushar has argued that this diversity led to a development of a distinctive food culture in the region.[32]
The Polish language was the most spoken language in Galicia as a whole, although the eastern part of the region was predominantly Ruthenian-speaking. According to the 1910 census, 58.6% of Galicia spoke Polish as its mother tongue, compared to 40.2% who spoke a Ruthenian language.[33] The number of Polish-speakers may have been inflated because Jews were not given the option of listing Yiddish as their language.[34]Eastern Galicia was the most diverse part of the region, and one of the most diverse areas in Europe at the time.
TheGalician Jews immigrated in the Middle Ages from Germany. German-speaking people were more commonly referred to by the region of Germany where they originated (such asSaxony orSwabia). For those who spoke different native languages, e.g. Poles and Ruthenians, identification was less problematic, and the widespread multilingualism blurred ethnic divisions.
The new state borders cut Galicia off from many of its traditional trade routes and markets of the Polish sphere, resulting in stagnation of economic life and decline of Galician towns. Lviv lost its status as a significant trade center. After a short period of limited investments, the Austrian government started the fiscal exploitation of Galicia and drained the region of manpower through conscription to the imperial army. The Austrians decided that Galicia should not develop industrially but remain an agricultural area that would serve as a supplier of food products and raw materials to other Habsburg provinces. New taxes were instituted, investments were discouraged, and cities and towns were neglected.[35][36][37] The result was significantpoverty in Austrian Galicia.[37][38] Galicia was the poorest province of Austro-Hungary,[39][40] and according toNorman Davies, could be considered "the poorest province in Europe".[38]
NearDrohobych andBoryslav in Galicia, significant oil reserves were discovered and developed during the mid 19th and early 20th centuries.[41][42] The first European attempt to drill for oil was inBóbrka in western Galicia in 1854.[41][42] By 1867, a well at Kleczany, in Western Galicia, was drilled using steam to about 200 meters.[41][42] On 31 December 1872, arailway line linking Borysław (now Boryslav) with the nearby city of Drohobycz (now Drohobych) was opened. British engineer John Simeon Bergheim and CanadianWilliam Henry McGarvey came to Galicia in 1882.[43][b] In 1883, their company bored holes of 700 to 1,000 meters and found large oil deposits.[41] In 1885, they renamed their oil developing enterprise the Galician-Karpathian Petroleum Company (German:Galizisch-Karpathische Petroleum Aktien-Gesellschaft), headquartered in Vienna, with McGarvey as the chief administrator and Bergheim as a field engineer,[c] and built a huge refinery at Maryampole nearGorlice, south of Tarnow.[43] Considered the biggest, most efficient enterprise in Austro-Hungary, Maryampole was built in six months and employed 1,000 men.[43][d] Subsequently, investors from Britain, Belgium, and Germany established companies to develop the oil and natural gas industries in Galicia.[41] This influx of capital caused the number of petroleum enterprises to shrink from 900 to 484 by 1884, and to 285 companies manned by 3,700 workers by 1890.[41] However, the number of oil refineries increased from thirty-one in 1880 to fifty-four in 1904.[41] By 1904, there were thirty boreholes in Borysław of over 1,000 meters.[41] Production increased by 50% between 1905 and 1906 and then trebled between 1906 and 1909 because of unexpected discoveries of vast oil reserves of which many were gushers.[44] By 1909, production reached its peak at 2,076,000 tons or 4% of worldwide production.[41][42] Often called the "Polish Baku", the oil fields of Borysław and nearby Tustanowice accounted for over 90% of the national oil output of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.[41][44][45] From 500 residents in the 1860s, Borysław had swollen to 12,000 by 1898.[44] At the turn of the century, Galicia was ranked fourth in the world as an oil producer.[41][e] This significant increase in oil production also caused a slump in oil prices.[44] A very rapid decrease in oil production in Galicia occurred just before theBalkan Wars of 1912–1913.
Dale Dwellers (larger kinship group):Krakowiacy,Mazury, Grębowiacy (Lesowiacy or Borowcy),Głuchoniemcy, Bełżanie, Bużanie (Łopotniki, Poleszuki), Opolanie, Wołyniacy, Pobereżcy or Nistrowianie.[47]
Linguistic and religious structure in 1910
Roman Catholic population of Galicia in the 1910 censusGreek Catholic and Orthodox population of Galicia in 1910Prevalence of Polish or Ukrainian language in Galicia in 1910
Linguistic and religious structure of Galicia according to the 1910 Austrian census[1]
Linguistic and religious structure of former Galicia in 1931
Roman Catholic population of former Galicia in the 1931 censusGreek Catholic and Orthodox population of former Galicia in 1931Prevalence of Polish or Ukrainian language in Galicia in 1931
Linguistic and religious structure of former Galicia according to the 1931 Polish census[48][49][50][51][52][53]
^William McGarvey helped develop a rig in the 1860s or 70s which made his Canadian drilling technology and Canadian drillers famous around the world. John Simon Bergheim and William Henry McGarvey had unsuccessfully searched for oil in Germany under the Continental Oil Company of which McGarvey was the director. They left Germany and began their first drilling in Galicia during 1882 under the company name of McGarvey and Bergheim.[43]
^Just after the turn of the century, Bergheim was killed in a taxicab accident in London, England, leaving McGarvey to carry on alone.[43]
^Later, Bergheim and McGarvey bought a number of small oil-producing and refining operations and acquired theApollo Oil Company of Budapest.[43]
^In 1909, first in the world for oil production was the United States with 183,171,000 barrels, the Russian Empire was second with 65,970,000 barrels, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire was third with 14,933,000 barrels per year due to its significant oil reserves discoveries between 1905 and 1909.[44][46]
References
Citations
^abZamorski, Krzysztof (1989).Informator statystyczny do dziejów społeczno-gospodarczych Galicji. Ludność Galicji w latach 1857-1910 (in Polish). Kraków-Warszawa: Zakład Wydawnictw Statystycznych. pp. Tabela 21, Tabela 35.ISBN83-233-0350-9.
^See also:Eleonora Narvselius (5 April 2012)."Narratives about (Be)longing, Ambiguity, and Cultural Colonization".Ukrainian Intelligentsia in Post-Soviet Lʹviv: Narratives, Identity, and Power. Lexington Books. p. 293.ISBN978-0-7391-6468-6. Retrieved10 March 2019.... the 'Austro-Hungarian "pedigree" of Galicia becomes the passport to genuine, non-Eastern Europe.' ... Otto von Habsburg ... expressed clearly that all of Ukraine belongs to Central Europe, which is the ideological construction differing from Russia-dominated Eastern Europe.
^Dimnik, Martin (2003).The Dynasty of Chernigov – 1146–1246. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. (Chronological table of events) xxviii.ISBN978-0-521-03981-9.
^Larry Wolff,The Idea of Galicia: History and Fantasy in Habsburg Political Culture (Stanford University Press, 2012), p. 1
^Buttar, Prit.Collision of Empires: The War on the Eastern Front in 1914. Oxford, UK; New York, NY: Osprey Publishing, 2016.ISBN9781782006480
^"Language legislation", inEncyclopedia of Ukraine (University of Toronto Press, 1993)
^"Chronicle: A Political Chronicle of Poland", inThe Slavonic Review, Volume 2 (University of London, 1923-24) p. 169
^French:Les Alliés reconnaissent à la Pologne la possession de la Galicie, Chronologie des civilisations, Jean Delorme, Paris, 1956.
^Magocsi, Paul R. (2002).The Roots of Ukrainian Nationalism: Galicia as Ukraine's Piedmont. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 57.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
^Paul Robert Magocsi. (1996). A History of Ukraine. Toronto: University ofToronto Press. Pg. 424.
^Piotr Eberhardt.Ethnic groups and population changes in twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: history, data, analysis. M.E. Sharpe, 2003. pp.92–93.ISBN978-0-7656-0665-5
^Timothy Snyder. (2003).The Reconstruction of Nations. New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 123
^Timothy Snyder. (2003).The Reconstruction of Nations. New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 134
^Anstalt G. Freytag & Berndt (1911). Geographischer Atlas zur Vaterlandskunde an der österreichischen Mittelschulen. Vienna: K. u. k. Hof-Kartographische. "Census December 31st 1910"
^Timothy Snyder. (2003).The Reconstruction of Nations. New Haven: Yale University Press, pg. 134
^P. R. Magocsi. (1983).Galicia: A Historical Survey and Bibliographic Guide. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute. p. 99
^P. Wandycz. (1974).The lands of partitioned Poland, 1795–1918. A History of East Central Europe. University of Washington Press. p. 12
^abStauter-Halsted, Keely (2001).The nation in the village : the genesis of peasant national identity in Austrian Poland, 1848-1914. Ithaca [N.Y.]ISBN978-1-5017-0224-2.OCLC992798076.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^abcdefghijkSchatzker, Valerie; Erdheim, Claudia; Sharontitle, Alexander."Petroleum in Galicia". Drohobycz Administrative District: History. Archived fromthe original on 10 April 2016. Retrieved20 April 2016.
^abcdGolonka, Jan; Picha, Frank J. (2006).The Carpathians and Their Foreland: Geology and Hydrocarbon Resources. American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG).ISBN978-0-89181-365-1.
Berend, Nora (2006).At the Gate of Christendom: Jews, Muslims and "Pagans" in Medieval Hungary, c.1000-c.1300. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-02720-5.
Buttar, Prit (2016).Collision of Empires: The War on the Eastern Front in 1914. Osprey Publishing.ISBN9781782006480.
Dohrn, Verena.Journey to Galicia, (S. Fischer, 1991),ISBN3-10-015310-3
Frank, Alison Fleig.Oil Empire: Visions of Prosperity in Austrian Galicia (Harvard University Press, 2005). A new monograph on the history of the Galician oil industry in both the Austrian and European contexts.
Paul Robert Magocsi, Galicia: A Historical Survey and Bibliographic Guide (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1983). Concentrates on the historical, or Eastern Galicia.
Andrei S. Markovits and Frank E. Sysyn, eds.,Nationbuilding and the Politics of Nationalism: Essays on Austrian Galicia (Cambridge, Massachusetts:Harvard University Press, 1982). Contains an important article byPiotr Wandycz on the Poles, and an equally important article byIvan L. Rudnytsky on the Ukrainians.
A.J.P. Taylor,The Habsburg Monarchy 1809–1918, 1941, discusses Habsburg policy toward ethnic minorities.
Wolff, Larry.The Idea of Galicia: History and Fantasy in Habsburg Political Culture (Stanford University Press; 2010) 504 pages. Examines the role in history and cultural imagination of a province created by the 1772 partition of Poland that later disappeared, in official terms, in 1918.
(in Polish) Grzegorz Hryciuk,Liczba i skład etniczny ludności tzw. Galicji Wschodniej w latach 1931–1959, [Number and Ethnic Composition of the People of so-called Eastern Galicia 1931–1959] Lublin 1996
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