| Frisian freedom Fryske frijheid (West Frisian) Fräiske Fräiegaid (Saterland Frisian) Friese vrijheid (Dutch) Friesische Freiheit (German) | |
|---|---|
| De factoautonomous region of theHoly Roman Empire | |
| c. 1100–1498 | |
 Seal of theUpstalsboom League from 1324 | |
 Map of Frisia in 1300 | |
| Demonym | Frisian |
| Historical era | Middle Ages |
• AllegedKarelsprivilege | c. 800 |
• Earliest evidence of regionalautonomy | c. 1100 |
• Recognition of imperial liberty bySigismund | 1417 |
• Establishment of theCounty of East Frisia | 1464 |
• Disestablished | 1498 |
| Today part of | |
TheFrisian freedom (/ˈfriːʒən/;West Frisian:Fryske frijheid;Dutch:Friese vrijheid;German:Friesische Freiheit) was the form of governance, legal system and social structure inFrisia during theMiddle Ages, characterised by self-government and the absence offeudalism. Its main aspects included freedom fromserfdom,feudal duties andtaxation, as well as theelection ofjudges andadjudicators.
According to medieval chronicles, exemption from feudalism was granted to the Frisians byCharlemagne, although the earliest clear evidence of the Frisian freedom has been dated to the 13th century. Throughout the Middle Ages, Frisians resisted the expansion of feudalism into their lands, fighting aseries of wars against theCounty of Holland in order to maintain theirautonomy. During this period, Frisian society was organised in a network ofrural communes, people largely governed themselves throughpublic assemblies, and elected judges established a codified legal system without any kind ofcentral government. Frisians formed treaties with other powers to protect their freedom, which was recognised by a number of German kings during theLate Middle Ages.
Frisian freedom was brought to an end in the late-15th century, as increasing levels ofclass stratification in the East culminated in the establishment of theCounty of East Frisia, while West Frisia was brought under the rule ofSaxony. Since the 16th century, the Frisian freedom has been subject to numerous reinterpretations. During theDutch Revolt, it was used to argue for the restoration of rights lost underHabsburg rule, and Frisian freedom later inspiredAmerican andFrench Revolutionaries. One Frisian history book from this period contained a fictionalised portrayal of the Frisian freedom, which deeply influenced later Frisian historiography. It was later recast as anational myth byFrisian nationalism, which depicted freedom as an inherent trait of the Frisian people and portrayed a level of historical continuity that is disputed by historians.
The region ofFrisia extends along theNorth Sea coastline, from theZuiderzee in the west to theWeser in the east. In most ofwestern Europe during theHigh Middle Ages, social organisation developed along the lines offeudalism, as nobles gained the right ofsovereignty over certain territories; but Frisia notably developed along a different path.[1] Beginning in the mid-11th century,Medieval communes spread fromnorthern Italy across much of Europe, gathering strength in areas outside the authority of feudal lords. These communes extendedpersonal freedoms includingpublic participation to its populace, which cultivated within them an antagonism towards feudalism.[2] Within theHoly Roman Empire, some of these communes, including in Frisia, eliminated the power of local princes, establishing quasi-republican systems of government.[3]
Frisian lands existed in a state ofautonomy from at least the 11th century.[4] Although Frisia was officially brought under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire, ade facto system ofself-governance developed in the region.[5] The Frisians disregarded the rights of local feudal lords, but still recognised the rule of the Empire, although this remained at a distance in practice.[6]
The earliest references to a "Frisian freedom" date back to the 13th century;[7] with the first documentary evidence of self-governance being found inc. 1220,[1] while the encyclopedistBartholomaeus Anglicus referred to Frisian attitudes towardsliberty inc. 1240.[8] Although medieval Frisia has been compared to theItalian city-states andOld Swiss Confederacy, due to their shared quasi-republican systems of government, Frisia was unique in its contemporary understanding of liberty as an intrinsic value.[9]
For most of its history, Frisian self-governance was maintained inEast Frisia, between the Weser andLauwers rivers.[1] Meanwhile, parts ofWest Frisia periodically fell under the feudal occupation of theCounty of Holland.[10] During theFriso-Hollandic Wars, the concept of Frisian freedom was used to mobilise armed resistance to feudalisation attempts by the counts of Holland.[11]
In contrast to developments in feudalcounties, the Frisiannobility never developed feudal titles,knighthoods were never established, and thecentralisation ofpolities intostates was a slow-moving process.Rural communes became the dominant institutional form in Frisia, with higher-level subdivisions coalescing into self-governing districts, known ascommunitates terrae (West Frisian:Steatsmienskippen;German:Landesgemeinden).[1] Frisians largely governed themselves through community assemblies,[10] also known asthings.[12]
Each year, Frisians electedjudges from their own ranks.[13] Allfreeholders were eligible to becomeadjudicators and were rotated out on an annual basis.[12] The Frisian historianUbbo Emmius later claimed that the election of judges was "the principle element of liberty".[14] Frisian freedom incentivised the codification ofcustomary law; the earliest surviving Frisian legal manuscripts date back to the late 13th century and the most recent date to the early 16th century.[15]
Medieval Frisian legal codes established a kind ofhonour system, in which compensation tariffs were used to preventfeuds. This was implemented without any kind ofcentral government, with historian Han Nijdam comparing its functioning to theIcelandic Commonwealth.[16] In 1323, the "Ubstalsboom Laws" were promulgated, declaring that "if any prince, secular or ecclesiastical, [...] shall have assailed us, Frisians, or any of us, wanting to subject us to the yoke of servitude, then together, through a joint call-up and by force of arms, we shall protect our liberty."[17] In 1361, the city ofGroningen attempted to revive theUpstalsboom League as its leading polity.[18]
It was not until theLate Middle Ages that Frisian freedom was officially recognised by foreign feudal powers.[12] In 1232, thePrince-Bishopric of Utrecht recognised that the Frisians "are free men, and released from any yoke of servitude or anyone’s oppressive rule."[17] The FrenchBartholomaeus Anglicus also recognised the Frisians' freedom from feudal rule and serfdom, as well as their annual election of judges, writing that they "hazard their life for liberty and prefer death to being oppressed by the yoke of servitude".[19]
In the early 13th century, mentions of Frisian liberties having been granted byCharlemagne began to appear in historical literature.[20] According to these medieval chronicles, the Frisian freedom was established by Charlemagne, the firstHoly Roman Emperor.[21] But no evidence of thisKarelsprivilege has been found prior to the 13th century, leading historian Han Nijdam to describe it as an "ideological embellishment".[22] Frisian scholars also made frequent references to Roman law and philosophy, in their justifications for the Frisian freedom.[23] Between 1297 and 1319, in an attempt to retroactively justify their freedom from feudal rule, some Frisians fabricated a charter that they alleged had been written by Charlemagne and confirmed their freedom fromserfdom,feudal duties andtaxation.[24]
In 1248,William II of Holland confirmed "all the rights, liberties and privileges conceded to all Frisians by the emperor Charlemagne", but the terms were kept vague, so the decree had little significant effect.[25] In 1338, Frisiancommunitates sent a letter toPhilip VI of France, in which they request he be "mindful of the most beneficial gift of Frisian freedom, [...] conceded to us by Charlemagne, king of the Romans [...], in perpetuity."[26] That same year, following a dispute between Frisians and the city ofGroningen, arbitrators issued a charter that declared Groningen would agree to protect the Frisian freedom from feudal lords.[27] In 1361, another charter was issued by a league of Frisianterrae and the city of Groningen, which reaffirmed a joint pact to protect Frisian freedom from "coercion by oppression".[26] This alliance was later invoked during attempts by theBurgundian State to conquer Frisia.[14]
According to a Frisian law book fromc. 1295, Frisians collaborated withRudolf I of Germany on military campaigns, in return for the protection of the Frisian freedom.[28] In 1417, the German kingSigismund issued a charter that granted Frisia "imperial liberty" from princely rule.[29] But as the terms of the charter required that they paytribute to the state, the Frisians rejected it. Instead, in 1421, they briefly recognised the count of Holland and the Empire subsequently declared Frisia to be a rebellious province.[30] In 1493, German kingMaximilian I issued a charter that granted the West Frisians imperial privilege, but this too was rejected by the Frisians, as it stipulated the payment of tribute.[31] A chronicle at theAduard Abbey also recognised that the Frisians "utterly abhorred the state of servitude for reason of the severity of the princes, as they had experienced earlier."[17]
A largely leaderless society, from 1298, references began to be made to urban officeholders known asaldermen and elected military leaders known ashaedlingen, which were often compared to the Italianpodestà.[32] By the mid-14th century,haedlingen had grown more rich and powerful, developing into an agrarianaristocracy and becoming the region'sde factoruling class.[33] Between theEms andJade rivers in eastern Frisia, the strength of communal institutions were diminished and the communes effectively disappeared, while in the west, village heads increasingly exerted more influence over the communes.[34] As the power of thehaedlingen grew, elements of the Frisian freedom such aspersonal freedom and the election of judges were discarded, as freedom was recast to mean freedom from foreign princes.[19]
In 1420, theEast Frisian chieftainsOcko II tom Brok andSibet Papinga [fy] formed an alliance to protect the Frisian freedom from theTeutonic Order; they reinterpreted Frisian freedom aspolitical freedom from foreign rule, rather than freedom from feudal servitude.[14] In 1430, mounting opposition to the East Frisian chieftains culminated with the establishment of a "Freedom League", in which an alliance of Frisian communities attempted to end their quasi-feudal rule.[14] In the mid-to-late 15th century, the Frisianhaedlingen recast the Frisian freedom to simply mean freedom from external taxation.[19] In 1464, one of the most powerful East Frisian chieftains,Ulrich I, had reorganised the eastern territories into theCounty of East Frisia, ending the Frisian freedom there and finally establishing feudal rule in the east.[31]
The Frisian freedom finally came to an end as a result ofcivil war between theSchieringers andVetkopers, two factions of the Frisian nobility.[12] In 1498, Maximilian appointedAlbert III, Duke of Saxony asgovernor of the region,[35] with the support of theSchieringers.[12] In 1504, Frisia was officially brought underSaxon law.[36] Although the Frisian freedom was abolished, the Saxons ultimately struggled to introduce feudalism in west Frisia, as the localhaedlingen rejected moves to bring them into the nobility.[31] In an attempt to capture Frisia from the Saxons, in 1514,Charles II, Duke of Guelders invaded Frisia, claiming his intention to restore the Frisian freedom.[37]
The concept of the Frisian freedom was reinterpreted during theDutch Revolt, when it was used to argue for the reinstatement of historic rights that had been lost underHabsburg rule.[38] In Friesland, the revolt was seen as a restoration of the Frisian freedom, as described in the writings of the Frisian republicanUbbo Emmius.[39]
Towards the end of the 16th century, a fictionalised version of thehistory of Frisia, Andreas Cornelius'sCroniicke ende waarachtige Beschrijvinge van Vrieslant, was published. Although its account of events was heavily mythologised, the book became very influential on the development of Frisian historiography over the subsequent centuries.[40]
The idea of the Frisian freedom continued to endure into the late 18th century;American RevolutionaryJohn Adams commented that Frisians were "famous for the spirit of liberty", whileFrench RevolutionaryHonoré Gabriel Riqueti compared Frisian to "a robust oak, with the sap of liberty preserving its strength and its verdure."[41]
By the end of theearly modern period, when Friesland was integrated into theUnited Kingdom of the Netherlands, the concept was again reinterpreted during the rise ofFrisian nationalism; the Frisian freedom lost its political connotations and was reconceived as a cultural trait of the Frisian people.[42] To nationalists of the 19th and 20th centuries,liberty was an innate characteristic of the Frisian national identity.[43] The Frisian freedom then became anational myth, assuming a continuous history of Frisian independence that lasted for over eight centuries, and the concept was subjected to increasedcommodification. This reconception has been disputed by academic historians, who have pointed out that the national myth was retroactively constructed in the 19th century and have debated the historical continuity of the Frisian freedom.[44]
