1Overseas parts of France proper Migration of minorities inFrance (i.e.Basques) can be considered as separate (ethnically) or French migration (by nationality).
French-Canadian Americans (French:Américains franco-canadiens; also referred to asFranco-Canadian Americans orCanadien Americans) are Americans ofFrench Canadian descent. About 2 million U.S. residents cited this ancestry in the 2020 census. In the 2010 census, the majority of respondents reported speakingFrench at home.[2] Americans of French-Canadian descent are most heavily concentrated inNew England,New York State,Louisiana and theMidwest. Their ancestors mostly arrived in the United States fromQuebec between 1840 and 1930, though some families became established as early as the 17th and 18th centuries.
The termCanadien (French for "Canadian") may be used either in reference tonationality orethnicity in regard to this population group. French-Canadian Americans, because of their proximity to Canada and Quebec, kept their language, culture, and religion alive much longer than any other ethnic group in the United States apart fromMexican Americans.[3] Many "Little Canada" neighborhoods developed in New England cities, but gradually disappeared as their residents eventually assimilated into the American mainstream. A revival of the Canadian identity has taken place in the Midwestern states, where some families of French descent have lived for many generations. These states had been considered part of Canadauntil 1783. A return to their roots seems to be taking place, with a greater interest in all things that are Canadian or Québécois.[4]
In the late 19th century, many Francophones arrived in New England fromQuebec andNew Brunswick to work intextile mill cities in New England. In the same period, Francophones from Quebec soon became a majority of the workers in the saw mill and logging camps in theAdirondack Mountains and their foothills. Others sought opportunities for farming and other trades such as blacksmiths inUpstate New York. By the mid-20th century, French-Canadian Americans comprised 30 percent ofMaine's population. Some migrants becamelumberjacks but most concentrated in industrialized areas and into enclaves known asLittle Canadas in cities likeLewiston, Maine,Holyoke, Massachusetts, andWoonsocket, Rhode Island.[5][6]
Driven by depleted farmlands, poverty and a lack of local economic opportunitunities, rural inhabitants of these areas sought work in the expanding mill industries. Newspapers inNew England carried advertisements touting the desirability of wage labor work in thetextile mills. In addition to industry's organized recruitment campaigns, the close kinship network of French-Canadians facilitated transnational communication and the awareness of economic opportunity for their friends and relatives. Individual French-Canadian families who desired dwellings developed French Canadian neighborhoods, calledPetit Canadas, and sought out local financing. Most arrived through railroads such as theGrand Trunk Railroad.[7]
French-Canadian women saw New England as a place of opportunity and possibility where they could create economic alternatives for themselves distinct from the expectations of their farm families in Canada. By the early 20th century some saw temporary migration to the United States to work as a rite of passage and a time of self-discovery and self-reliance. Most moved permanently to the United States, using the inexpensive railroad system to visit Quebec from time to time. When these women did marry, they had fewer children with longer intervals between children than their Canadian counterparts. Some women never married, and oral accounts suggest that self-reliance and economic independence were important reasons for choosing work over marriage and motherhood. These women conformed to traditional gender ideals in order to retain their 'Canadienne' cultural identity, but they also redefined these roles in ways that provided them increased independence in their roles as wives and mothers.[8][9]
The French-Canadians became active in theCatholic Church where they tried with little success to challenge its domination byIrish clerics.[10] They founded such newspapers as 'Le Messager' and 'La Justice.' The first hospital inLewiston, Maine, became a reality in 1889 when the Sisters of Charity of Montreal, the "Grey Nuns", opened the doors of the Asylum of Our Lady of Lourdes. This hospital was central to the Grey Nuns' mission of providingsocial services for Lewiston's predominately French-Canadian mill workers. The Grey Nuns struggled to establish their institution despite meager financial resources, language barriers, and opposition from the established medical community.[11] Immigration dwindled with theU.S. immigration restrictions afterWorld War I.
The French-Canadian community in New England tried to preserve some of its cultural norms. This doctrine, like efforts to preserveFrancophone culture inQuebec, became known asla Survivance.[12]
^l’Actualité économique, Vol. 59, No 3, (september 1983): 423-453 and Yolande LAVOIE, L’Émigration des Québécois aux États-Unis de 1840 à 1930, Québec, Conseil de la langue française, 1979.
^Harvard encyclopedia of American ethnic groups,Stephan Thernstorm, Harvard College, 1980, p 392
^Mark Paul Richard,From 'Canadien' to American: The Acculturation of French-Canadian Descendants in Lewiston, Maine, 1860 to the Present, PhD dissertation, Duke U., 2002;Dissertation Abstracts International, 2002 62(10): 3540-A. DA3031009, 583p.
^Hudson, Susan (2013),The Quiet Revolutionaries: How the Grey Nuns Changed the Social Welfare, 1870–1930, Routledge
^Waldron, Florencemae (2005), "The Battle Over Female (In)Dependence: Women In New England Québécois Migrant Communities, 1870–1930",Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies,26 (2):158–205,doi:10.1353/fro.2005.0032,S2CID161455771
^Richard, Mark Paul (2002). "The Ethnicity of Clerical Leadership: The Dominicans in Francophone Lewiston, Maine, 1881–1986".Quebec Studies.33:83–101.doi:10.3828/qs.33.1.83.
^Hudson, Susan (2001–2002), "Les Sœurs Grises of Lewiston, Maine 1878–1908: An Ethnic Religious Feminist Expression",Maine History,40 (4):309–332
^Stewart, Alice R. (1987), "The Franco-Americans of Maine: A Historiographical Essay",Maine Historical Society Quarterly,26 (3):160–179
^Ralph D. VICERO,Immigration of French Canadians to New England, 1840–1900, Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1968, p. 275; as given in Yves ROBY, Les Franco-Américains de la Nouvelle Angleterre, 1776–1930, Sillery, Septentrion, 1990, p. 47
^Leon E. Truesdell,The Canadian Born in the United States, New Haven, 1943, p. 77; as given in Yves ROBY,Les Franco-Américains de la Nouvelle-Angleterre, Sillery, Septentrion, 1990, p. 282.
Anctil, Pierre. (1979).A Franco-American Bibliography: New England, Bedford, N. H.: National Materials Development Center, 137 p.
Barkan, Elliott Robert. (1980) "French Canadians". in Stephan Thernstrom, ed.Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups 388-401, comprehensive survey
Brault, Gérard-J. (1986).The French-Canadian Heritage in New England, Hanover: University Press of New England, 1986, 282 p. ISBN0-87451-359-6 (online excerpt)
Brown, Michael. "Franco-American Identity at the University of Maine,"Maine History 1997 36(3-4): 106-119
Chartier, Armand, and Claire Quintal (1999).The Franco-Americans of New England. A History, Manchester and Worcester: ACA Assurance and Institut français ofAssumption College, 537 p. ISBN1-880261-05-7. 537pp; encyclopedic coverage, 1860 to 1990s.
Doty, C. Stewart. "The Future of the Franco-American Past,"American Review of Canadian Studies, Spring 2000, Vol. 30 Issue 1, pp 7–17 calls for further research on trade unionism, politics, farming and logging, links with Quebec elites, and literary figures.
Fecteau, Edward (1945).French Contributions to America. Methuen, Mass.: Soucy Press; Franco-American Historical Society (Société Historique Franco-Américaine).OCLC1312704.
Fedunkiw, Marianne P. "French-Canadian Americans." inGale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 2, Gale, 2014), pp. 167–183.Online
Gagné, Peter J. and Adrien Gabriel Morice (2000).French-Canadians of the West. A Biographical Dictionary of French-Canadians and French Métis of the Western United States and Canada,Quintin Publications,ISBN1-58211-223-1
Geyh, Patricia Keeney, et al. (2002).French Canadian Sources. A Guide for Genealogists, Ancestry Publishing, 320 pagesISBN1-931279-01-2 (online excerpt)
Gosnell, Jonathan. "Le base ball, Assimilation, and Ethnic Identity: The National Pastime in Franco-America."Quebec Studies 66 (2018): 49-75.online
Lacroix, Patrick (2016). "A Church of Two Steeples: Catholicism, Labor, and Ethnicity in Industrial New England, 1869–90".Catholic Historical Review.102 (4):746–770.doi:10.1353/cat.2016.0206.S2CID159662405.
Lacroix, Patrick (2017). "Americanization by Catholic Means: French Canadian Nationalism and Transnationalism, 1889-1901".Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era.16 (3):284–301.doi:10.1017/S1537781416000384.S2CID164667346.
Louder, Dean R., and Eric Waddell, eds. (1993).French America. Mobility, Identity, and Minority Experience Across the Continent, Louisiana State University Press, 371 pagesISBN0-8071-1669-6
Lindenfeld, Jacqueline. (2002).The French in the United States. An Ethnographic Study, Greenwood Publishing Group, 184 pagesISBN0-89789-903-2 (online excerpt)
Monnier, Alain. "Franco-Americains et Francophones aux Etats-Unis" ("Franco-Americans and French Speakers in the United States).Population 1987 42(3): 527-542. Census study.
Murphy, Lucy Eldersveld,Great Lakes Creoles: A French-Indian Community on the Northern Borderlands, Prairie du Chien, 1750-1860. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
Perreault, Robert B.Franco-American Life and Culture in Manchester, New Hampshire: Vivre La Difference (2010)excerpt and text search
Potvin, Raymond H. "The Franco-American Parishes of New England: Past, Present and Future,"American Catholic Studies 2003 114(2): 55-67.
Richard, Mark Paul. (2008)Loyal but French: The Negotiation of Identity by French-Canadian Descendants in the United States, on acculturation inLewiston, Maine, 1860 to the 2000
Richard, Mark Paul. (2016) "'Sunk into Poverty and Despair': Franco-American Clergy Letters to FDR during the Great Depression."Quebec Studies 61#1: 39-52.online
Richard, Sacha. (2002) "American Perspectives on 'La Fievre aux Etats-Unis,' 1860–1930: A Historiographical Analysis of Recent Writings on the Franco-Americans in New England,"Canadian Review of American Studies 32(1): 105-132
Roby, Yves. (2004).The Franco-Americans of New England. Dreams and Realities, Montreal: Les éditions du Septentrion, 543 pagesISBN2-89448-391-0 (online excerpt) translated by Mary Ricard.
Rumily, Robert. (1958)Histoire des Franco Americains. a standard history, in French
Stewart, Alice R. (1987) "The Franco-Americans of Maine: A Historiographical Essay,"Maine Historical Society Quarterly 26(3): 160-179
Vermette, David G. (2018)A Distinct Alien Race: The Untold Story of Franco-Americans: Industrialization, Immigration, Religious Strife
Warren, Jean-Philippe. (2017) "The French Canadian Press in the United States."Journal of Modern Periodical Studies 7.1-2: 74-95.online
1Overseas parts of France proper Migration of minorities inFrance (i.e.Basques) can be considered as separate (ethnically) or French migration (by nationality).
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913)."French Catholics in the United States".Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
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