Freediving,free-diving,free diving,breath-hold diving, orskin diving is a mode ofunderwater diving that relies onbreath-holding (apnea) until resurfacing rather than the use of breathing apparatus such asscuba gear.Besides the limit of breath-hold, immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure also have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in freediving.
Examples of freediving activities aretraditional fishing techniques, competitive and non-competitive freediving, competitive and non-competitivespearfishing and freedivingphotography,synchronised swimming,underwater football,underwater rugby,underwater hockey,underwater target shooting andsnorkeling. There are also a range ofcompetitive apnea disciplines; in which competitors attempt to attain great depths, times, or distances on a single breath.
Historically, the termfree diving was also used to refer toscuba diving, due to the freedom of movement compared withsurface supplied diving.[1][2][3]
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In ancient times freediving without the aid of mechanical devices was the only possibility, with the exception of the occasional use of reeds and leather breathing bladders.[4] The divers faced the same problems as divers today, such asblacking out during a breath hold. Freediving was practiced inancient cultures togather food, harvest resources such assponge andpearl,reclaim sunken valuables, and to help aidmilitary campaigns.[5]In Ancient Greece, bothPlato andHomer mention thesponge as being used for bathing. The island ofKalymnos was a main centre ofdiving for sponges. By using weights (skandalopetra) of as much as 15 kilograms (33 lb) to speed the descent, breath-holding divers would descend to depths up to 30 metres (98 ft) to collect sponges.[6] Harvesting ofred coral was also done by divers.[7]
TheMediterranean had large amounts of maritime trade. As a result ofshipwrecks, particularly in the fierce winter storms, divers were often hired to salvage whatever they could from theseabed.[8]
Divers were also used in warfare. Defenses against sea vessels were often created, such as underwaterbarricades, and hence divers were often used to scout out the seabed when ships were approaching an enemy harbor. If barricades were found, it was divers who were used to disassemble them, if possible.[9] During thePeloponnesian War, divers were used to get past enemyblockades to relay messages as well as supplies to allies or troops that were cut off,[10] and in 332 BC, during theSiege of Tyre, the city used divers to cut the anchor cables ofAlexander's attacking ships.[11]
In Japan,ama divers began to collect pearls about 2,000 years ago.[12][13]For thousands of years, most seawater pearls were retrieved by divers working in the Indian Ocean, in areas such as thePersian Gulf, theRed Sea, and in theGulf of Mannar (betweenSri Lanka andIndia).[14] A fragment ofIsidore of Charax'sParthian itinerary was preserved inAthenaeus's 3rd-centurySophists at Dinner, recording freediving for pearls around an island in thePersian Gulf.[15]
Pearl divers near thePhilippines were also successful at harvesting large pearls, especially in theSulu Archipelago. At times, the largest pearls belonged by law to the sultan, and selling them could result in the death penalty for the seller. Nonetheless, many pearls made it out of the archipelago by stealth, ending up in the possession of the wealthiest families in Europe.[16] Pearling was popular in Qatar, Bahrain, Japan, and India. The Gulf of Mexico was also known for pearling.[17]Native Americans harvested freshwater pearls from lakes and rivers like theOhio,Tennessee, andMississippi, while others dived for marine pearls from theCaribbean and waters along the coasts ofCentral andSouth America.[18]
In 1940,Dottie Frazier pioneered freediving for women in the United States and also began teaching classes. It was also during this time that she began to design and sell rubber suits for Navy UDT divers.[19]
Spearfishing is an ancient method offishing that has been used throughout the world for millennia. Early civilizations were familiar with the custom of spearing fish from rivers and streams using sharpened sticks.[20]
Modern spearfishing makes use of elastic poweredspearguns and slings, or compressed gas pneumatic powered spearguns, to strike the hunted fish. Specialised techniques and equipment have been developed for various types of aquatic environments and target fish. Spearfishing may be done usingfree-diving,snorkelling, orscuba diving techniques. Spearfishing while using scuba equipment is illegal in some countries. The use of mechanically powered spearguns[clarification needed] is also outlawed in some countries and jurisdictions.[citation needed] Spearfishing is highly selective, normally uses no bait and has limitedby-catch.[21]
Various cultures have collected shellfish by freediving for "possibly thousands" of years.[22][23][24] One example is the historical recreational collection ofabalone in South Africa, before illegal harvesting reduced stocks to levels which resulted in recreational collection being banned indefinitely. This did not completely stop illegal harvesting, because selling illegally harvested abalone remained lucrative.[25]
Aquathlon (also known as underwater wrestling) is an underwater sport where two competitors wearing masks and fins wrestle underwater in an attempt to remove a ribbon from each other's ankle band in order to win the bout. The "combat" takes place in a 5-metre (16 ft) square ring within a swimming pool, and is made up of three 30-second rounds, with a fourth round played in the event of a tie. The sport originated during the 1980s in the former USSR (now Russia) and was first played at international level in 1993. It was recognised by theConfédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) in 2008.[26][27][28][29]
Competitive spearfishing is defined by the world governing body CMAS as "the hunting and capture of fish underwater without the aid of artificial breathing devices, using gear that depends entirely on the physical strength of the competitor." They publish a set of competition rules that are used by affiliated organisations.[30][31]
Synchronized swimming is a hybrid form ofswimming,dance, andgymnastics, consisting of swimmers (either solos, duets, trios, combos, or teams) performing a synchronized routine of elaborate moves in the water, accompanied by music. Synchronized swimming demands advanced water skills, and requires great strength, endurance, flexibility, grace, artistry and precise timing, as well as exceptional breath control when upside down underwater. During lifts swimmers are not allowed to touch the bottom.[32]
Traditionally it was a women's sport, but following the addition of a new mixed-pair event,FINA World Aquatics competitions are open to men sincethe 16th 2015 championships in Kazan, and the other international and national competitions allow male competitors in every event. However, men are currently still barred from competing in the Olympics. Both USA Synchro and Synchro Canada allow men to compete with women. Most European countries also allow men to compete, and France even allows male only podiums, according to the number of participants. In the past decade, more men are becoming involved in the sport and a global biannual competition called Men's Cup has been steadily growing.[citation needed]
Swimmers perform two routines for the judges, one technical and one free, as well as age group routines and figures. Synchronized swimming is both an individual and team sport. Swimmers compete individually during figures, and then as a team during the routine. Figures are made up of a combination of skills and positions that often require control, strength, and flexibility. Swimmers are ranked individually for this part of the competition. The routine involves teamwork and synchronization. It is choreographed to music and often has a theme. Synchronized swimming is governed internationally byFINA (Fédération Internationale de Natation).[citation needed]
Underwater hockey (also calledoctopush, mainly in theUnited Kingdom) is a globally played limited-contact sport in which two teams compete to manoeuvre ahockey puck across the bottom of aswimming pool into the opposing team'sgoal by propelling it with ahockey stick. The sport originated inEngland in 1954 when Alan Blake, the founder of the newly formedSouthsea Sub-Aqua Club, invented the game he called octopush to keep the club's members interested and active during the cold winter months, when open-water diving lost its appeal.[33] Underwater hockey is now played worldwide, governed by theConfédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS).[34] The firstUnderwater Hockey World Championship was held inCanada in 1980, after a planned championship in 1979 was scuttled by international politics andapartheid.[citation needed]
Underwater football is a two-teamunderwater sport that shares common elements withunderwater hockey andunderwater rugby. As with both of those games, it is played in aswimming pool withsnorkeling equipment (mask,snorkel, andfins). The goal of the game is tomanoeuvre (bycarrying andpassing) a slightlynegatively buoyantball from one side of a pool to the other by players who are completely submergedunderwater.Scoring is achieved by placing the ball (under control) in thegutter on the side of the pool. Variations include using a toy rubber torpedo as the ball, and weighing down buckets to rest on the bottom and serve as goals.[citation needed]
It is played in the Canadian provinces ofAlberta,Manitoba,Newfoundland and Labrador, andSaskatchewan.[35]
Underwater rugby is an underwater team sport. During a match, two teams try to score a negatively buoyant ball (filled with saltwater) into the opponents' goal at the bottom of a swimming pool. It originated from within the physical fitness training regime existing in German diving clubs during the early 1960s and has little in common with rugby football except for the name. It was recognised by CMAS in 1978 and was first played as a world championship in 1980.[citation needed]
Underwater target shooting is anunderwater sport that tests a competitors' ability to accurately use aspeargun via a set of individual and team events conducted in aswimming pool usingfree diving or apnea technique. The sport was developed inFrance during the early 1980s and is currently practised mainly inEurope. It is known asTir sur cible subaquatique in French and asTiro al Blanco Subacuático in Spanish.
Competitive freediving is currently governed by two world associations:AIDA International[36] andConfédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS). Historically, there were two more organisations that regulated freediving records and activities — International Association of Freedivers (IAFD) and Freediving Regulations and Education Entity (FREE).[37][38] Each organization has its own rules on recognizing a record attempt which can be found on the organization's website. Alongside competitive disciplines, there are record disciplines — disciplines that are not held in competitions, that are just for setting world records. There is a third organization,Guinness, which in addition to AIDA and CMAS presides over record disciplines.[citation needed]
Almost all types of competitive freediving are individual sports based on the best individual achievement. Exceptions to this rule are the bi-annual AIDA Team World Championship, where the combined score of the team members makes up the team's total points, andSkandalopetra diving competitions held by CMAS, the only truly 'team' event in freediving for which teams are formed by two athletes: one acting as the diver (βουτηχτής,voutichtis) and the other acting as an assistant (κολαουζέρης,kolaouzeris).[citation needed]
There are currently eleven recognized disciplines defined by AIDA and CMAS, and a dozen more that are only practiced locally.[clarification needed][citation needed] All disciplines can be practiced by both men and women, and only CMAS currently distinguishes records in fresh water from those at sea. The disciplines of AIDA can be done both in competition and as a record attempt, with the exception of variable weight and no limits, which are both solely for record attempts. For all AIDA depth disciplines, the depth the athlete will attempt is announced before the dive; this is accepted practice for both competition and record attempts. Most divers choosemonofin (MF) overbifins (BF) where there is a choice.[citation needed]
| Discipline | Measurement | AIDA[39] | CMAS[40] | Description | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| open water | pool | open water | pool | |||
| Constant weight apnea (CWT) | depth |  Y | – | Y | – | Maximum depth following a guide line. The line to act solely as a guide and only a single hold of the rope to stop the descent and start the ascent is permitted. Dropping dive weights is not permitted. Both bi-fins and monofin are permitted and the technique is irrelevant. |
| Constant weight bi-fins (CWT BF,CWTB) | depth | Y | – | Y | – | As for CWT above but monofins are not permitted and the athlete is prohibited to use a dolphin kick for his / her propulsion. |
| Constant weight without fins (CNF) | depth | Y | – | Y | – | As for CWT above but no swimming aids such as fins are permitted. This discipline is the most recently recognised discipline having been recognised by AIDA since 2003. |
| Dynamic apnea without fins (DNF) | horizontal distance | – | Y | Y | Y | Maximum distance underwater, in a pool, no swimming aids such as fins are permitted (AIDA). |
| Dynamic apnea with fins (DYN) | horizontal distance | – | Y | Y | Y | Maximum horizontal distance on one breath in a pool. Monofin or bi-fins are permitted and the technique is irrelevant. |
| Dynamic apnea with bifins (DYN BF,DYNB) | horizontal distance | – | Y | – | Y | Same as DYN above but monofins are not permitted and the athlete is prohibited to use a dolphin kick for his / her propulsion. |
| Free immersion apnea (FIM) | depth | Y | – | Y | – | Maximum depth following a vertical line. The line may be used to pull down to depth and back to the surface. No ballast or fins are permitted. It is known for its ease compared with the Constant Weight disciplines, while still not permitting the release of weights. |
| Jump blue (JB, alsothe cube) | horizontal distance |  N | Y | – | Maximum distance covered around a 15-metre square at a depth of 10 metres. Monofin, bi-fins or no fins are all permitted. Sled may be used for descent. | |
| No-limits apnea (NLT) | depth | Y | – | N | Any means of breath-hold diving to depth and return to the surface is permitted provided that a guideline is used to measure the distance. Most divers use a weighted sled to descend and an inflatable bag to ascend. It is important to note that new attempts are not recognised due to the level of danger presented to divers[41] | |
| Skandalopetra | depth & min. time | N | Y | – | The only true team event in freediving. Diver 1 descends, usually assisted by a stone or marble slab attached to a rope, while Diver 2 waits on the surface. Diver 1 reaches the target depth and is hauled to the surface by Diver 2 using only muscle power. No diving mask, suit or fins are permitted, only nose clip. | |
| Static apnea (STA) | max. time | Y | Y | Y | Y | Timed breathhold endurance while floating on the surface or standing on the bottom. Usually in a pool. |
| Static apnea with pure oxygen (STA O2) | max. time | N | N | Timed breathhold endurance, pre-breathing 100% oxygen for up to 30 minutes prior to the breathhold is permitted. Usually in a pool. Although no longer recognised by either AIDA or CMAS there were three instances of records being approved by AIDA. | ||
| Speed-endurance apnea (S&E apnea)[42] | min. time | N | – | Y | Shortest time over a fixed, underwater distance. An endurance sub-discipline is swum in fractions of a pool length alternating apnoea swimming with passive recovery at the intervals. Disciplines areSPE – 100m speed apnoea,END 16x50 – 800m andEND 8x50 – 400m endurance apnoea. | |
| Variable weight apnea without fins (VNF) | depth | N | Y | – | Descent is assisted by a weighted sled sliding down a line, the ascent may be by pulling up along the line or swimming without fins. | |
| Variable weight apnea (VWT) | depth | Y | – | Y | – | Descent is assisted by a weighted sled sliding down a line, the ascent may be either by: 1.) pulling up along the line or swimming with or without fins under AIDA rules 2.) swimming with fins under CMAS rules. |
| Discipline | Aids permitted | Weight change permitted? | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Descent | Ascent | ||
| CNF | None or weight | None | No |
| CWT | BF / MF and/or weight | BF / MF | No |
| CWT BF | BF and/or weight | BF | No |
| DNF | – | – | – |
| DYN | – | – | – |
| DYN BF | – | – | – |
| FIM | Rope or none | Rope or none | No |
| JB | Sled and/or BF / MF or none | BF / MF or none | Sled only |
| NLT (No Limit) (Only AIDA) | Any | Any | Yes |
| Skandalopetra | Stone | Hauled up | Yes |
| STA | – | – | – |
| STA O2 | – | – | – |
| S&E Apnoea | – | – | – |
| VNF (only CMAS) | Sled | Rope or none | Yes |
| VWT | Sled | BF / MF or rope | Yes |
The best official result in static apnea is the Guinness WR of 11:54 by Branko Petrović in 2014, a freediver who has results over 10 minutes under both AIDA and CMAS.[citation needed]The best no limits result is 253.2m by Herbert Nitsch in 2012; his intention of having the dive sanctioned by AIDA fell through due to a sponsoring conflict.[citation needed]After 2001, AIDA International no longer separated the records achieved in fresh water from those in the sea.[citation needed]
As of 1 January 2024[update], theCMAS recognized world records are:[45]
| Discipline | Gender | Depth [m] | Distance [m] | Time | Name/Country | Date | Place | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Static apnea | STA | Men | – | – | 10:45.000 |  Branko Petrović (SRB) | 2017-11-11 | Subotica, Serbia |
| Women | – | – | 08:53.150 |  Veronika Dittes (AUT) | 2017-06-15 | Cagliari, Italy | ||
| Dynamic apnea with fin | DYN | Men | – | 321.43 | – |  Mateusz Malina (POL) | 2022-06-15 | Belgrade, Serbia |
| Women | – | 275.36 | – |  Mirela Kardašević (CRO) | 2022-06-15 | Belgrade, Serbia | ||
| under ice | Men | – | 175 | – |  Arthur Guérin-Boëri (FRA) | 2017-03-11 | Lake Sonnanen, Finland | |
| Women | – | 140 | – | Valentina Cafolla (CRO) | 2024-02-23 | Lake Anterselva, Italy[46] | ||
| open water | Men | – | 200 | – |  Sertan Aydin (TUR) | |||
| Women | – | – | ||||||
| Dynamic apnea with bifins | DBF | Men | – | 274.70 | – | Guillaume Bourdila (FRA) | 2022-06-13 | Belgrade, Serbia |
| Women | – | 250.00 | – | Mirela Kardašević (CRO) | 2022-06-13 | Belgrade, Serbia | ||
| Dynamic apnea without fins | DNF-50 | Men | – | 236 | – | Guillaume Bourdila (FRA) | 2019-06-19 | Istanbul, Turkey |
| Women | – | 210 | – | Julia Kozerska (POL) | 2022-06-12 | Belgrade, Serbia | ||
| DNF-25 | Men | – | 220.70 | – | Vanja Peles (CRO) | 2021-03-28 | Sisak, Croatia | |
| Women | – | 206.20 | – | Mirela Kardasevic (CRO) | 2021-03-28 | Sisak, Croatia | ||
| Speed 100 m. | SPE | Men | – | – | 00:30.350 |  Malte Striegler (GER) | 2018-06-15 | Lignano, Italy |
| Women | – | – | 00:35.860 |  Vera Yarovitskaya (RUS) | 2017-06-15 | Cagliari, Italy | ||
| Endurance | END16x50 | Men | – | – | 09:10.030 | Max Poschart (GER) | 2019-06-19 | Istanbul, Turkey |
| Women | – | – | 10:41.120 | Evgeniia Kozyreva (RUS) | 2021-06-23 | Belgrade, Serbia | ||
| END8x50 | Men | – | – | 03:05.720 | Mikhail Drozdov (RUS) | 2019-06-22 | Istanbul, Turkey | |
| Women | – | – | 04:10.190 |  Chiara Zaffaroni (ITA) | 2023-05-10 | Kuwait | ||
| END4x50 | Men | – | – | |||||
| Women | – | – | 01:33.860 | Chiara Zaffaroni (ITA) | 2023-05-11 | Kuwait | ||
| Jump blue apnea with fins | at sea | Men | – | 201.61 | – | Arthur Guérin-Boëri (FRA) | 2015-10-09 | Ischia, Italy |
| Women | – | 190.48 | – | Alessia Zecchini (ITA) | 2015-10-09 | Ischia, Italy | ||
| fresh water | Men | – | 170 | – |  Alfredo Leonidas Rosado Estrada (ECU) | |||
| Women | – | 132.92 | – | Gilda Rivadeneria Montalvo (ECU) | ||||
| Constant weight with fins | at sea | Men | 136 | – | – | Alexey Molchanov (RUS) | 2023-08-23 | Roatan, Honduras |
| Women | 122 | – | – |  Alenka Artnik (SLO) | 2021-07-21 | Long Island, Bahamas | ||
| fresh water | Men | 80 | – | – | Michele Tomasi (ITA) | |||
| Women | 57 | – | – |  Tanya Streeter (UK) | 1998-12-28 | Ocala, Fl, USA | ||
| Constant weight with bifins (CWT BF) | at sea | Men | 124 | – | – | Alexey Molchanov (RUS) | 2023-08-25 | Roatan, Honduras |
| Women | 106 | – | – | Alenka Artnik (SLO) | 2021-09-30 | Kaş, Turkey | ||
| fresh water | Men | 75 | – | – | Michele Tomasi (ITA) | |||
| Women | – | – | ||||||
| Constant weight without fins | at sea | Men | 100 | – | – | Alexey Molchanov (RUS) | 2023-08-23 | Roatan, Honduras |
| Women | 78 | – | – |  Kateryna Sadurska (UKR) | 2023-08-24 | Roatan, Honduras | ||
| fresh water | Men | 65 | – | – |  Michal Rišian (CZE) | 2016-07-10 | Weyregg, Austria | |
| Women | – | – | – | – | – | – | ||
| Free immersion apnea | at sea | Men | 132 | – | – | Petar Klovar (CRO) | 2022-10-04 | Kaş, Turkey |
| Women | 72 | – | – | Alessia Zecchini (ITA) | 2021-07-17 | Long Island, Bahamas | ||
| Variable weight apnea monofin | at sea | Men | 131 | – | – | Homer Leuci (ITA) | 2012-09-11 | Soverato, Italy |
| Women | 116 | – | – | Lena Balta (SER) | 2022-06-25 | Sharm el Sheik, Egypt | ||
| Variable weight apnea bifins | at sea | Men | 130 | – | – |  William Winram (SWI) | 2021-10-21 | Sharm el Sheik, Egypt |
| Women | - | – | – | |||||
| Variable weight apnea without fins (VNF) | at sea | Men | 140 | – | – | William Winram (SWI) | 2023-12-11 | Sharm el Sheik, Egypt |
| Women | 106 | – | – | Şahika Ercümen (TUR) | 2023-10-17 | Hatay, Turkey | ||
| Skandalopetra | at sea | Men | 112 | – | – | Andreas Güldner (GER) | 2014-06-26 | Red Sea, Egypt |
| Women | 68.9 | – | – |  Karol Meyer (BRA) | 2012 | Bonaire, Caribbean | ||
As of 26 July 2023[update], theAIDA recognized world records are:[47][48][49]
| Discipline | Gender | Depth [m] | Distance [m] | Time | Name | Date | Place |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Static apnea (STA) | Men | – | – | 11 min 35 sec | Stéphane Mifsud (FRA) | 2009-06-08 | Hyères, Var, France |
| Women | – | – | 9 min 22 sec | Heike Schwerdtner (GER) | 2025-05-04 | Stockholm, Sweden | |
| Dynamic apnea with fins (DYN) | Men | – | 316.53 | – | Mateusz Malina (POL)[50] | 2019-06-22 | Turku, Finland |
| Women | – | 280 | – |  Zsófia Törőcsik (HUN) | 2025-07-02 | Wakayama, Japan | |
| Dynamic apnea with bifins (DYNB) | Men | – | 298 | – | Guillaume Bourdila (FRA) | 2025-06-28 | Wakayama, Japan |
| Women | – | 208 | – | Kardasevic Mirela (CRO) | 2019-03-07 | Moscow, Russia | |
| Dynamic apnea without fins (DNF) | Men | – | 250 | – | Mateusz Malina (POL) | 2022-05-01 | Dębica, Poland |
| Women | – | 213 | – | Julia Kozerska (POL) | 2023-06-13 | Seogwipo, South Korea | |
| Constant weight apnea (CWT) | Men | 133 | – | – | Alexey Molchanov (RUS) | 2023-07-22 | Dean's Blue Hole, Long Island Bahamas |
| Women | 123 | – | – | Alessia Zecchini (ITA) | 2023-04-24 | Camotes Island, Philippines | |
| Constant weight apnea with bifins (CWTB) | Men | 126 | – | – | Alexey Molchanov (RUS) | 2025-09-26 | Limassol, Cyprus |
| Women | 111 | – | – | Alenka Artnik (SVN) | 2023-07-30 | Dean's Blue Hole, Long Island Bahamas | |
| Constant weight apnea without fins (CNF) | Men | 103 | – | – | Petar Klovar (CRO) | 2025-05-26 | Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt |
| Women | 73 | – | – | Alessia Zecchini (ITA) | 2016-04-26 | Dean's Blue Hole, Long Island Bahamas | |
| Free immersion apnea (FIM) | Men | 133 | – | – | Alexey Molchanov (RUS) | 2023-07-21 | Dean's Blue Hole, Long Island Bahamas |
| Women | 103 | – | – | Sanda Delija (HRV) | 2025-05-04 | Mabini, Philippines | |
| Variable weight apnea (VWT) | Men | 156 | – | – | Alexey Molchanov (RUS) | 2023-03-28 | Bonaire, Caribbean |
| Women | 130 | – | – |  Nanja van den Broek (NED) | 2015-10-18 | Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt | |
| No Limit apnea (NLT) | Men | 214 | – | – | Herbert Nitsch (AUT) | 2012-06-06 | Santorini, Greece |
| Women | 160 | – | – | Tanya Streeter (UK) | 2002-08-17 | Turks and Caicos |
| Discipline | Gender | Points | Team / Individual | Date | Place |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| AIDA team | Men | 840.6 | CRO Goran Čolak, Božidar Petani, Veljano Zanki | 2012-09-16 | Nice, France[51][52] |
| Women | |||||
| Men | 313.3 |  William Trubridge (NZL) | 2010-07-06 | Okinawa, Japan[53][54] | |
| Women |
The following table only includes those disciplines that are modifications of existing AIDA or CMAS disciplines and Guinness-exclusive (as it recognizes and inherits some AIDA/CMAS records) or Guinness-conceived (CMAS and AIDA do/did sanction at some time[clarification needed]) disciplines.
As of 25 February 2018[update]:
| Discipline | Gender | Depth [m] | Distance [m] | Time | Name | Date | Place |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| STA O2 | Men | – | – | 24:11 | Budimir Šobat (CRO) | 24 February 2018 | Zagreb |
| Women | – | – | 18:32 | Karol Meyer (BRA) | 10 July 2009 | Florianopolis | |
| DYN under ice | Men | – | 175 | – | details under CMAS world records | ||
| Women | – | 125 | – | ||||
| DNF under ice | Men | – | 84 | – | Nik Linder (GER) | Feb 2013 | Weissensee[55][56] |
| Women | – | – | |||||
| DNF under ice (no diving suit) | Men | – | 81 | – | David Vencl (CZ) | Feb 2021 | Lahošť lake |
| Women | – | 50 | – |  Johanna Nordblad (FIN) | Mar 2015 | Päijänne[57] | |
| NLT under ice | Men | 65 | – | – | Andreas Pap (SRB) | Feb 2013 | Weissensee[55] |
| Women | – | – | |||||
Freediving as a recreational activity is widely practiced and differs significantly fromscuba diving. Although there arerisks to all freediving activities, it can be acceptably safely practiced at a wide range of skill levels from the average snorkeler to the professional freediver. Compared to scuba diving, freediving offers:[citation needed]
Freshwater springs and other caves, often with excellent visibility, have been freedived but with greater risks. Diving into water with restricted access to the surface is very different from diving in open water. The time available to a freediver to solve problems underwater before hypoxia sets in is severely restricted in comparison with scuba, and scuba diving under an overhead is not recommended without an independent emergency gas supply. Freediving into confined cave systems has resulted in several deaths.[citation needed] Cave freediving is strongly discouraged in basic freediver safety training.[59]
Human physiology of freediving is thephysiological influences of theunderwater environment on the human breath holdambient pressure diver, and adaptations to operating underwater. It, therefore, includes the range of physiological effects generally limited to human freediving. Several factors influence the diver, including immersion, exposure to the water, the limitations of breath-hold endurance, variations in ambient pressure, and sensory impairment. All of these may affect diver performance and safety.[60]
Immersion affects fluid balance, circulation and work of breathing.[61][62] Exposure to cold water can result in the harmfulcold shock response,[63][64] the helpfuldiving reflex and excessive loss of body heat.[65][66][67][68] Breath-hold duration is limited by oxygen reserves, the response to raised carbon dioxide levels, and the risk ofhypoxic blackout, which has a high associated risk ofdrowning.[69][70][71]
Large or sudden changes in ambient pressure have the potential for injury known asbarotrauma.[60][72] Metabolically inactive gases are absorbed by the tissues and may have narcotic or other undesirable effects, and must be released slowly to avoid the formation of bubbles duringdecompression.[73]
The underwater environment also affects sensory input, which can impact on safety and the ability to function effectively at depth.[61]
In addition to generaladaptations within thehuman species, freediving is an example of an activity that has been directly affected byrecent human evolution. TheBajau, or "Sea Nomads," have engaged in freediving for thousands of years, andnatural selection has led to largerspleen sizes. This serves as anoxygen reservoir when diving. It is hypothesized that other isolated diving populations globally may have experienced the same selection.[74]
Breath-holding ability, and hence dive performance, is a function of on-board oxygen stores, scope for metabolic rate reduction, efficient oxygen utilization, and hypoxia tolerance.[75] Athletes attempt to accomplish this in various ways. Some divers use "packing", which increases lung volume beyond normal total lung capacity.[76] In addition, training is allocated to enhance blood and muscle oxygen stores, to a limited extent.[clarification needed]Most divers rely on increasing fitness by increasing CO2 tolerance and lung capacity. Simple breath-holding practice is highly effective for the build-up of tolerance toCO2 and to some degree increased lung capacity. In an interview on the radio talk showFresh Air, journalist James Nestor, author of the bookBreath: The New Science of a Lost Art,[77] stated: "Some divers have a lung capacity of 14 liters, which is about double the size for a typical adult male. They weren't born this way. ... They trained themselves to breathe in ways to profoundly affect their physical bodies."[78][dubious –discuss]
Before competition attempts, freedivers perform a preparation sequence, which usually consists of physical stretching, mental exercise and breath exercise. It may include a succession of variable length static apnea and special purging deep breaths. Results of the preparation sequence are slower metabolism, lower heart and breathing rates, lower levels of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream,[79] and overall mental equilibrium.[citation needed]
Technically known asglossopharyngeal insufflation, lung packing or buccal pumping is a technique for inflating the lungs beyond their normal isobarictotal capacity, which is used to delay the compression of the lungs at by hydrostatic pressure, allowing a greater depth to be reached, and provide a slightly larger reserve of oxygen for the dive. After full normal inspiration, the diver fills the mouth with air, with the glottis closed, then opens the glottis and forces the air from the mouth into the lung, then closes the glottis to hold in the air. This is repeated several times. Lung packing can increase the volume of air in the lungs by up to 50% of vital capacity. The pressure induced will reduce the volume of blood in the chest, which will increase the space available for air. The gas in the lungs is also compressed. Pressures of about 75 millimetres of mercury (100 mbar) have been reported.[80] Lung packing has been associated with short-term haemodynamic instabilities, which might contribute toward triggering blackout.[81]
Also known as hook breathing. This is a technique used by free divers on surfacing to reduce the risk of surface blackout. A partial exhalation is made, followed by a quick inhalation; then the diver closes the airway and pressurises for a few seconds as if about to cough. This behavior is repeated a few times over the first 30 seconds or so on the surface. The aim is to keep thoracic pressure slightly raised to artificially raise arterial oxygen partial pressure or prevent it from dropping in the critical seconds until newly oxygenated blood can reach the brain and thereby prevent surface blackout. This is the same technique used by pilots during high-g maneuvers, as well as by mountaineers at high altitude.[82][83]
There is no requirement by law that free-divers are required to do formal freediving training or be certified, but due to the risks inherent to the sport, freediving without knowledge or training can pose a greater risk to life. The free-diving courses contain three components: theory studies, confined water sessions generally conducted in a swimming pool, andopen water sessions in the ocean or other large body of fresh or salt water.[84][85]
Training for breathhold endurance can take many forms, some of which can be performed on land. One training exercise is the apnea walk. This consists of a preparation "breathe-up", followed by a short (typically 1 minute) breath hold taken at rest. Without breaking the hold, participants then begin walking as far as possible until it becomes necessary to breathe again. Some athletes can do close to 400 meters in training this way.[citation needed]
This form of training is good for accustomingmuscles to work underanaerobic conditions, and for tolerance tocarbon dioxide build-up in the circulation. It is also easy to gauge progress, as increasing distance can be measured.[citation needed]
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There are several training agencies that provide certification in freediving at various levels from beginner to instructor. Some, like AIDA and Molchanovs, are focused exclusively on freediving, particularly competitive aspects, while others, like PADI and SSI, are primarily international recreational scuba training agencies that have branched out into recreational freediving. All of these agencies will provide instruction and practical training in aspects of safety, basic freediving physiology theory and practical techniques.[86]
Freedivers are encouraged by certification and sporting organisations to dive only with a 'buddy' who accompanies them, observing from in the water at the surface, and ready to dive to the rescue if the diver loses consciousness during the ascent. This is only reasonably practicable if the water clarity allows observation, and the buddy is capable of safely reaching the diver. In poor visibility the diver can clip onto the downline with a buddy line. Signals can be transmitted on the downline and it can be used to find the diver. Spearfishers can use a surface marker buoy for the same purpose. Due to the nature of the sport, the risks of freediving can be reduced by strict adherence to safety measures as an integral part of the activity, but cannot be eliminated. Competition rules may require all participants to be certified and adept in rescue and resuscitation.[87][88]
The most obvious hazard is lack of access to air for breathing – a necessity for human life. This can result inasphyxia from drowning if the diver does not reach the surface while still capable of holding their breath and resuming breathing. The risk depends on several factors, including the depth, duration and shape of the dive profile.[89]
Latent hypoxia is a specific hazard of deeper freedives. This effect can causehypoxic blackout during surfacing.[90]
Freediving blackout, breath-hold blackout,[91] or apnea blackout is a class of hypoxic blackout, aloss of consciousness caused bycerebral hypoxia towards the end of a breath-hold (freedive or dynamicapnea) dive, when the swimmer does not necessarily experience an urgent need to breathe and has no other obvious medical condition that might have caused it. It can be provoked byhyperventilating just before a dive, or as a consequence of the pressure reduction on ascent, or a combination of these. Victims are often established practitioners of breath-hold diving, are fit, strong swimmers and have not experienced problems before.[72][71][70]
Divers and swimmers who black out orgrey out underwater during a dive will usuallydrown unless rescued and resuscitated within a short time.[92] Freediving blackout has a high fatality rate, and mostly involves males younger than 40 years, but is generally avoidable. Risk cannot be quantified, but is clearly increased by any level of hyperventilation.[69]
Freediving blackout can occur on any dive profile: at constant depth, on an ascent from depth, or at the surface following ascent from depth and may be described by a number of terms depending on the dive profile and depth at which consciousness is lost. Blackout during a shallow dive differs from blackout during ascent from a deep dive in that blackout during ascent is precipitated by depressurisation on ascent from depth while blackout in consistently shallow water is a consequence ofhypocapnia following hyperventilation.[70][93]
There is also a wide range ofenvironmental hazards possible specific to the site and water and weather conditions at the time of diving, and there may be other hazards specific to the freediving activity, such asspearfishing.[94]
Failing to respond to physiological warning signals, or crossing the mental barrier by strong will, may lead to blackout underwater or on reaching the surface.[12][95] Trained freedivers are well aware of this and competitions must be held under strict supervision and with competent first-aiders on standby.[96] However, this does not eliminate the risk of blackout.[87]
Following the deaths of two freedivers in competitions, AIDA has a system set up for monitoring and if necessary, recovering competitors who lose consciousness underwater.As of 2022 the incidence of adverse events in depth competitions varies between 3 and 4% of competition dives. This rate is considered relatively low and is expected during competitions where divers push their breath-hold limits. Almost all of these divers are successfully assisted and recover completely. There is a much lower incidence of more serious injuries.[97]
The safety team is usually made up of volunteers, or paid staff in some major events, and is supervised by theChief of Safety. Each competitor is monitored by a team of breath-hold safety divers who will descend in time to meet the competitor during their ascent, and monitor them for the rest of the ascent. They will intervene if necessary, typically by securing the competitor's airway and swimming them up to the surface. The first safety diver will meet the competitor at somewhere around 1/3 to 1/4 of the target depth, usually with a maximum of 30m. The second will meet them about 10m shallower, and a third will be on standby in case of an emergency. The work can be challenging as many dives are done in a day, so the team of safety divers is usually rotated to ensure that they are not overtasked.[97] Scuba divers and scooter freedivers may also be part of the safety team.[98]
In case of a deeper incident, the competitor is clipped to the downline for the duration of the dive, which can be rapidly raised by the surface support team, which includes a medical support group.[97]
Nicholas Mevoli, a diver from New York died on 17 November 2013 after losing consciousness on surfacing from a 3-minute 38 second dive to a depth of 72 metres (236 ft) during an official record attempt in the "constant weight without fins" event. He had previously reached greater depths and longer times in other disciplines.[99]
On 22 July 2017, Irish safety diver Stephen Keenan died during a dive inDahab, Egypt. He was the safety diver for Italian freediverAlessia Zecchini, who was attempting to swim through the Arch of theBlue Hole (Red Sea). For reasons that remain unclear, Keenan began his descent approximately 20 seconds later than planned, causing him to miss the scheduled meeting point with Zecchini. He eventually reached her and assisted her ascent to the surface. Shortly afterward, Keenan lost consciousness and was later found floating face down in the water.[100]
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