| Frankish Tower | |
|---|---|
Φραγκικός Πύργος | |
 Photograph of the tower in 1874, with the ruins of thePropylaia and view west over the Athenian plain towardsMount Aigaleo | |
 Plan of ancient monuments of the Acropolis of Athens. The tower was immediately southwest of thePropylaia (6), behind theTemple of Athena Nike (7). | |
| General information | |
| Location | Acropolis of Athens |
| Coordinates | 37°58′17.6″N23°43′30.3″E / 37.971556°N 23.725083°E /37.971556; 23.725083 |
| Completed | Unclear; probably between 1205 and 1458 |
| Demolished | 1875 |
| Height | 85 ft (26 m) |
TheFrankish Tower (Greek:Φραγκικός Πύργος,romanised: Frankikos Pyrgos) was a medieval tower built on theAcropolis of Athens. The date and circumstances of its construction are unclear, but it was probably built as part of the palace of theDukes of Athens, who ruled the city between 1205 and 1458 during what was known as theFrankokratia. The tower was on the western side of the Acropolis, near the monumental gateway known as thePropylaia. Throughout its history, the tower was used as a watchtower, a beacon, a salt-store and a prison. During theGreek War of Independence, the height of the tower was increased, and it was used to imprison the revolutionaryOdysseas Androutsos, who was killed there in 1825.
The tower's presence on the Acropolis was controversial, particularly after 1834, when the government of KingOtto of Greece undertook to clear the site of its post-classical remains. The tower was initially exempted from this project for its perceived aesthetic value, as well as its symbolic role in affirming a connection between western Europe and classical Greek culture. However, it was seen as a foreign imposition upon the Acropolis by many in Greece, particularly archaeological figures such asKyriakos Pittakis andLysandros Kaftanzoglou. In 1875, with funding from the German businessmanHeinrich Schliemann, the tower was demolished, to widespread criticism outside Greece.
The nameFrankish Tower reflects the presumed association between the tower and the medievalFrankish rulers who held power in Athens between 1205 and 1458.[1] It has also been known as the "Venetian Tower", reflecting an erroneous belief that it was constructed during the Venetian occupation of Athens in 1687–1688.[2] Under Ottoman rule, the tower came to be known asGoulas orKoulas (Γουλάς/Κουλάς), from the Turkishkule, meaning 'tower'.[3] In the seventeenth century, the French doctor and archaeologistJacob Spon recorded that the tower was popularly known as the "Arsenal ofLycurgus" and was falsely believed to date to the fourth century BCE.[4] After 1825, the tower was sometimes known as "Odysseus's Tower", after the Greek revolutionaryOdysseas (Odysseus) Androutsos, who was imprisoned there in that year.[2] It is also occasionally referred to as the "Tuscan Tower".[5]
The tower was situated on the western corner of theAcropolis of Athens, next to thePropylaia. There was probably no access between the two buildings, as paintings and photographs from the nineteenth century show the tower's entrance above ground, on the second floor of the eastern face, some 6 metres (20 ft) above thearchitrave of thePropylaia. Literary sources attest that the door was accessible by means of an external wooden staircase.[6][7] Some photographs also show a ground entrance on the western side, suggesting that the lower portion of the tower was separate from the upper floors, and used as a prison or storage room.[8]
The tower was built of stone from the quarries ofPenteli andPiraeus; the builders also made heavy use of material (spolia) from the ancient buildings of the Acropolis. It was rectangular in shape, 28.5 feet (8.7 m) long and 25.5 feet (7.8 m) wide, and its walls had a thickness of 5.75 feet (1.75 m) at their base. With a height of 85 feet (26 m), its top, accessible through a wooden staircase, held a commanding view over the central plain ofAttica and the surrounding mountains. The north side of the tower had a small, squareturret that projected from the wall:[6] according to a 1908 history by the medievalistWilliam Miller, this could be used to light abeacon visible fromAcrocorinth in thePeloponnese.[9] During the Ottoman period, the turret hosted two small cannons which could be used to signal an alarm.[10] Sketches from the late seventeenth century onwards show that the tower was oncecrenellated.[11][12]
The date of the tower's construction is unclear and now impossible to reconstruct with any certainty following the tower's demolition.[12] Construction is usually ascribed to the FlorentineAcciaioli family, who ruled theDuchy of Athens between 1388 and its fall to theOttoman Empire in 1458, since it was they who converted thePropylaia complex into a palace.[13] However, according to medievalist Peter Lock, the tower "might equally be ascribed" to the first dynasty ofFrankish dukes of Athens, the 13th-centuryde la Roche family, who also had a residence on the site, of which no details are known.[14] In the nineteenth century, the classicistJohn Pentland Mahaffy tried to argue that the tower dated to the occupation of Athens by the Venetian commanderFrancesco Morosini between 1687 and 1688; his theory was disproven by the existence of engravings from the occupation, which showed that the tower predated it.[2]
The tower may have been the inspiration for the "grete tour" ('great tower') in the palace of the Duke of Athens, where Palamon is imprisoned inChaucer'sThe Knight's Tale.[15] Under Ottoman rule, the tower was used as a salt store and a prison.[3] When theGreek War of Independence broke out in 1821, twelve Athenian notables were imprisoned there by the Ottoman authorities as hostages, of whom nine were executed during the1821–1822 siege of the Acropolis by the Greek rebels and three managed to escape.[3] The tower was heightened between 1821 and 1826 to provide greater visibility to those using it as an observation post.[16] In 1825, following his capture by the Greeks after his defection to the Ottomans, the revolutionaryOdysseas Androutsos was imprisoned at the tower, tortured and killed.[15][3] His body was found at the foot of the tower on 17 June [O.S. 5 June].[10][a] Observers reported seeing a rope hanging down from the tower's window, supposedly used by Androutsos during a failed escape attempt, until 1840.[18] By the 1870s, the tower was home to hundreds of owls.[19]
After the Greek War of Independence, arguments for the tower's demolition came from archaeologists, who believed that thespolia used in the tower's construction might include valuable inscriptions, and from those who saw it as an intrusion on the earlier Greek remains of the Acropolis.[2] In July 1834, the German architectLeo von Klenze arrived in Athens to advise the Greek kingOtto on the development of the city. At Klenze's instigation, the Acropolis was demilitarised and designated an archaeological site on 30 August [O.S. 18 August].[20] Klenze, despite his general determination to remove post-classical remains from the Acropolis, favoured the preservation of the medieval structures near the Propylaia for what he considered their "picturesque" appeal, a view shared byCarl Wilhelm von Heideck, a member of Otto'sregency council.[21] The proposal to remove the tower was also opposed in France, including by the scholarJean Alexandre Buchon, where it was seen as a source of pride through its perceived association with Frankishcrusaders, and as a symbol of the continuity between ancient Greek and modern French culture.[22] Other critics of the plan to remove the tower, such as the traveller and novelistElliot Warburton, considered that the tower had aesthetic value and had become part of the well-known skyline of the Acropolis.[23]
The archaeologistKyriakos Pittakis was an early advocate of demolition, while foreign visitors labelled the tower a "barbarous sentinel" and complained that it interrupted the view of the Parthenon.[2] In the Greek press, the architect and academicLysandros Kaftanzoglou compared the tower, which he considered of Turkish origin and called "barbarian", with thedroppings of birds of prey.[24] Kaftanzoglou's later work repairing some of the Acropolis's retaining walls, in which he boasted that "no deviation from the ancient line was effected nor use of alien material", has been described as a manifestation of the classicising ideology behind the demolition of the Frankish Tower, and much of the subsequent restoration work on the Acropolis throughout the nineteenth century.[25]
In the summer of 1874, the German archaeologist and businessmanHeinrich Schliemann visited Athens.[26] He had been trying for a number of years to secure a permit to excavate in Greece, first unsuccessfully petitioning for the site ofOlympia and later for that ofMycenae. On 29 June [O.S. 17 June], he proposed to theGeneral Ephorate of Antiquities that he fund the demolition of the Frankish Tower,[27] which he considered would cost him 12,000 francs: he explained this decision as a "service to science", though it has also been characterised as an attempt to ingratiate himself with the Greek authorities and expedite his requests for an archaeological permit.[19] He believed that the demolition would be popular, remarking that "everyone in [Athens] was delighted" with the prospect, except for the thousands of owls that lived in the tower.[28] Schliemann was also granted the right to publish any inscriptions found during the demolition, though none eventually materialised.[29]
Schliemann proposed that the work would be carried out by theArchaeological Society of Athens and directed by the sculptorNapoleone Martinelli, one of its members.[25]Panagiotis Efstratiadis, a prominent member of the society and the head of theGreek Archaeological Service, obtained ministerial approval for the request, and oversaw Schliemann's payment of an initial 4,000drachmas to Martinelli on 1 July [O.S. 19 June] to cement the deal. However, the operation's beginning was delayed by the intervention of KingGeorge I and by the reluctance of Greek government ministers to give final permission. Schliemann presented a further 9,000 drachmas to the Archaeological Society, whose committee subsequently voted in favour of the demolition – despite the objection of the society's president,Filippos Ioannou, that destroying the tower would reinforce foreign complaints that Greece had shown insufficient care for its medieval monuments – on 14 July [O.S. 2 July].[30]
Work began on 14 July [O.S. 2 July], amid great publicity organised by Schliemann, but a few days later the demolition was halted by order of King George, prompting Schliemann to write him an indignant letter of protest.[26] In September, theMinistry of Religious Affairs and Public Education, which directed the Archaeological Service, declared that the demolition should be delayed, on the grounds that the time was not right for it.[31] The operation finally resumed on 3 July [O.S. 21 June] 1875 and was completed on 2 October [O.S. 20 September]. The archaeological historian Fani Mallouchou-Tufano has suggested that theGreat Eastern Crisis of 1875, in which nationalist rebellions had arisen in parts of the Balkans still under Ottoman rule, played a role in encouraging Greeks to see the removal of the post-classical structure as a means of reinforcing their "national confidence and certainty".[25] The demolition eventually cost Schliemann £465 (equivalent to £47,938 in 2019), and was the last removal to date of a building from the Acropolis.[32]
The demolition drew considerable criticism at the time; the French poetThéophile Gautier called the tower an "integral part of the Athenian horizon".[3] The British historianEdward Augustus Freeman wrote an anonymous article on 21 July [O.S. 9 July] 1877, later published under his name in theTrieste-based Greek newspaperKlio, which condemned the demolition as "paltry" and as "wanton destruction".[33] The historian of Frankish Greece,William Miller, later called it "an act of vandalism unworthy of any people imbued with a sense of the continuity of history"[34] and "pedantic barbarism".[28] Kaftanzoglou and his colleagueStefanos Koumanoudis, however, writing on behalf of the Archaeological Society of Athens, defended the demolition as "the restoration of the Greek character of the shining face of the Acropolis, pure and unsullied by anything foreign".[35]
.jpg)