Frankfurt was acity state, theFree City of Frankfurt, for nearly five centuries, and was one of the most important cities of theHoly Roman Empire, as a site ofImperial coronations; it lost itssovereignty upon the collapse of the empire in 1806, regained it in 1815 and then lost it again in 1866, when it was annexed (though neutral) by theKingdom of Prussia. It has been part of the state of Hesse since 1945. Frankfurt is culturally, ethnically and religiously diverse, with half of its population, and a majority of its young people,having a migrant background. A quarter of the population consists of foreign nationals, including manyexpatriates. In 2015, Frankfurt was home to 1,909ultra high-net-worth individuals, the sixth-highest number of any city. As of 2023, Frankfurt is the13th-wealthiest city in the world and the third-wealthiest city in Europe (afterLondon andParis).[7]
The Frankfurt Stock Exchange is one of the world's largeststock exchanges bymarket capitalization and accounts for more than 90 percent of the turnover in the German market.
In 2010, 63 national and 152 international banks had their registered offices in Frankfurt, including Germany's major banks, notablyDeutsche Bank,DZ Bank,KfW,Deka Bank andCommerzbank, as well as 41 representative offices of international banks.[8]
Frankfurt has many downtownhigh-rise buildings that form its renownedFrankfurt skyline. In fact, it is one of the few cities in theEuropean Union (EU) to have such a skyline, which is why Germans sometimes refer to Frankfurt asMainhattan, combining the local riverMain and "Manhattan". The other well-known nickname isBankfurt. BeforeWorld War II, the city was noted for its uniqueold town, the largest timber-framed old town in Europe. TheRömer area was later rebuilt and is popular with visitors and for events such asFrankfurt Christmas Market. Other parts of the old town were reconstructed as part of theDom-Römer Project from 2012 to 2018.
By the 19th century, the nameFrankfurt had been established as the official spelling. The older English spelling ofFrankfort is now rarely seen in reference to Frankfurt am Main, although more than a dozen other towns and cities, mainly in the United States, use this spelling, includingFrankfort, Kentucky,Frankfort, New York, andFrankfort, Illinois.The New York Times first used the Frankfurt spelling for Frankfurt am Main on 24 October 1953 and last used the Frankfort spelling on 10 June 1954.
The suffixam Main has been used regularly since the 14th century. In English, the city's full name ofFrankfurt am Main means "Frankfurt on the Main" (pronounced like Englishmine or Germanmein). Frankfurt is located on an ancient ford (German:Furt) on the riverMain. As a part of earlyFranconia, the inhabitants were the earlyFranks, thus the city's name reveals its legacy as "the ford of the Franks on the Main".[15]
Among English speakers, the city is commonly known simply as Frankfurt, but Germans occasionally call it by its full name to distinguish it from the other (significantly smaller) German city ofFrankfurt an der Oder in theLand ofBrandenburg on the Polish border.
The city districtBonames has a name probably dating back to Roman times, thought to be derived frombona me(n)sa (good table).
The common abbreviations for the city, primarily used in railway services and on road signs, areFrankfurt (Main),Frankfurt (M),Frankfurt a. M.,Frankfurt/Main orFrankfurt/M. The commonabbreviation for the name of the city is "FFM". Also in use is "FRA", theIATA code for Frankfurt Airport.
At the western borders of Frankfurt lies theKapellenberg as part of the Taunus with one of the first Stone Age cities in Europe.[16] The Celts had different settlements in the Taunus mountains north of Frankfurt, the biggest one theHeidetrank Oppidum. The first traces ofRoman settlements established in the area of theriver Nidda date to the reign of EmperorVespasian in the years 69 to 79 AD.Nida (modernHeddernheim,Praunheim) was a Romancivitas capital (Civitas Taunensium).
TheFrankfurter Messe ('Frankfurt Trade Fair') was first mentioned in 1150. In 1240,Emperor Frederick II granted an imperial privilege to its visitors, meaning they would be protected by the empire. The fair became particularly important when similar fairs in French Beaucaire lost attraction around 1380.Book trade fairs began in 1478.
In 1372, Frankfurt became aReichsstadt (Imperial Free City), i.e., directly subordinate to theHoly Roman Emperor and not to a regional ruler or a local nobleman.
In 1585, Frankfurt traders established a system ofexchange rates for the various currencies that were circulating to prevent cheating and extortion. Therein lay the early roots for the Frankfurt Stock Exchange.
Frankfurt managed to remain neutral during theThirty Years' War, but suffered from thebubonic plague that refugees brought to the city. After the war, Frankfurt regained its wealth. In the late 1770s the theater principalAbel Seyler was based in Frankfurt, and established the city's theatrical life.[18]
Following theFrench Revolution, Frankfurt was occupied or bombarded several times by French troops. It remained aFree city until the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1805/6. In 1806, it became part of theprincipality of Aschaffenburg under theFürstprimas (Prince-Primate),Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg. This meant that Frankfurt was incorporated into theConfederation of the Rhine. In 1810, Dalberg adopted the title of aGrand Duke of Frankfurt.Napoleon intended to make his adopted sonEugène de Beauharnais, alreadyPrince de Venise ("prince of Venice", a newly established primogeniture in Italy), Grand Duke of Frankfurt after Dalberg's death (since the latter as a Catholic bishop had no legitimate heirs). The Grand Duchy remained a short episode lasting from 1810 to 1813 when the military tide turned in favor of the Anglo-Prussian-led allies that overturned the Napoleonic order. Dalberg abdicated in favor of Eugène de Beauharnais, which of course was only a symbolic action, as the latter effectively never ruled after the ruin of the French armies and Frankfurt's takeover by the allies.
After Napoleon's final defeat and abdication, theCongress of Vienna (1814–1815) dissolved the grand-duchy and Frankfurt became a fully sovereign city-state with a republican form of government. Frankfurt entered the newly foundedGerman Confederation (till 1866) as a free city, becoming the seat of itsBundestag, the confederal parliament where the nominally presidingHabsburg Emperor of Austria was represented by an Austrian "presidential envoy".
After the ill-fatedrevolution of 1848, Frankfurt was the seat of the first democratically elected German parliament, theFrankfurt Parliament, which met in theFrankfurter Paulskirche (St. Paul's Church) and was opened on 18 May 1848. In the year of its existence, the assembly developed a common constitution for a unified Germany, with the Prussian king as its monarch. The institution failed in 1849 when thePrussian king,Frederick William IV, declared that he would not accept "a crown from the gutter".
Frankfurt lost its independence after theAustro-Prussian War in 1866 when Prussia annexed several smaller states, among them theFree City of Frankfurt. The Prussian administration incorporated Frankfurt into its province ofHesse-Nassau. The Prussian occupation and annexation were perceived as a great injustice in Frankfurt, which retained its distinct western European, urban and cosmopolitan character. The formerly independent towns ofBornheim andBockenheim were incorporated in 1890.
In 1914, the citizens founded the University of Frankfurt, later namedGoethe University Frankfurt. This marked the only civic foundation of a university in Germany; today it is one of Germany's largest.
From 6 April to 17 May 1920, following military intervention to put down theRuhr uprising,Frankfurt was occupied by French troops.[19] The French claimed that Articles 42 to 44 of thepeace treaty of Versailles concerning the demilitarization of theRhineland had been broken.[20] In 1924,Ludwig Landmann became the first Jewish mayor of the city, and led a significant expansion during the following years. During theNazi era, the synagogues of the city were destroyed and the vast majority of the Jewish population fled or was killed.[21]
Frankfurt was severelybombed in World War II (1939–1945). About 5,500 residents were killed during the raids, and the once-famousmedieval city center, by that time one of the largest in Germany, was almost completely destroyed. It became aground battlefield on 26 March 1945, when the Allied advance into Germany was forced to take the city in contested urban combat that included a river assault. The5th Infantry Division and the6th Armored Division of theUnited States Army captured Frankfurt after several days of intense fighting, and it was declared largely secure on 29 March 1945.[26] Frankfurt consists to over 40% of buildings from before World War II, besides all destruction.[27]
After the end of the war, Frankfurt became a part of the newly founded state of Hesse, consisting of the oldHesse-(Darmstadt) and thePrussian Hesse provinces. The city was part of theAmerican Zone of Occupation of Germany. The Military Governor for the United States Zone (1945–1949) and the United States High Commissioner for Germany (HICOG) (1949–1952) had their headquarters in theIG Farben Building, intentionally left undamaged by the Allies' wartime bombardment.
Frankfurt was the original choice for the provisional capital city of the newly founded state ofWest Germany in 1949. The city constructed a parliament building that was never used for its intended purpose (it housed the radio studios ofHessischer Rundfunk). In the end,Konrad Adenauer, the first postwarChancellor, preferred the town ofBonn, for the most part because it was close to his hometown, but also because many other prominent politicians opposed the choice of Frankfurt out of concern that Frankfurt would be accepted as the permanent capital, thereby weakening the West German population's support for areunification withEast Germany and the eventual return of the capital toBerlin.
Postwar reconstruction took place in a sometimes simple modern style, thus changing Frankfurt's architectural face. A few landmark buildings were reconstructed historically, albeit in a simplified manner (e.g.,Römer,St. Paul's Church, andGoethe House). The collection of historically significantCairo Genizah documents of the Municipal Library was destroyed by the bombing. According toArabist and Genizah scholarS.D. Goitein, "not even handlists indicating its contents have survived."[28]
The Frankfurt Parliament at St. Paul's Church in 1848
Aerial view of the cathedral in May 1945
Reconstruction (1981–1984) of six houses at the east side of the Römerberg which were destroyed in World War II
The end of the war marked Frankfurt's comeback as Germany's leading financial hub, mainly because Berlin, now a city divided intofour sectors, could no longer rival it. In 1948, the Allies founded theBank deutscher Länder, the forerunner ofDeutsche Bundesbank. Following this decision, more financial institutions were re-established, e.g.Deutsche Bank andDresdner Bank. In the 1950s, Frankfurt Stock Exchange regained its position as the country's leading stock exchange.
During the 1970s, the city created one of Europe's most efficient underground transportation systems.[29] That system includes a suburban rail system (S-Bahn) linking outlying communities with the city center, and a deep underground light rail system with smaller coaches (U-Bahn) also capable of travelling above ground on rails.
Frankfurt is located on both sides of the riverMain, south-east of theTaunus mountain range. The southern part of the city contains theFrankfurt City Forest, Germany's largest city forest. The city area is 248.31 km2 (95.87 sq mi) and extends over 23.4 km (14.54 mi) east to west and 23.3 km (14.48 mi) north to south. Its downtown is north of the river Main inAltstadt district (the historical center) and the surroundingInnenstadt district. The geographical center is inBockenheim district nearFrankfurt West station.
The 46Stadtteile (city districts) of central Frankfurt, 2010
The city is divided into 46 city districts (Stadtteile), which are in turn divided into 121 city boroughs (Stadtbezirke) and 448 electoral districts (Wahlbezirke). The 46 city districts combine into 16 area districts (Ortsbezirke), which each have a district committee and chairperson.
The largest city district by population and area isSachsenhausen, while the smallest isAltstadt, Frankfurt's historical center. Three larger city districts (Sachsenhausen,Westend andNordend) are divided for administrative purposes into a northern (-Nord) and a southern (-Süd) part, respectively a western (-West) and an eastern (-Ost) part, but are generally considered as one city district (which is why often only 43 city districts are mentioned, even on the city's official website).[30]
Some larger housing areas are often falsely called city districts, even by locals, like Nordweststadt (part ofNiederursel,Heddernheim andPraunheim), Goldstein (part ofSchwanheim), Riedberg (part ofKalbach-Riedberg) andEuropaviertel (part ofGallus). TheBankenviertel (banking district), Frankfurt's financial district, is also not an administrative city district (it covers parts of the westernInnenstadt district, the southernWestend district and the easternBahnhofsviertel district).
Many city districts are incorporated suburbs (Vororte) or were previously independent cities, such asHöchst. Some likeNordend andWestend arose during the rapid growth of the city in theGründerzeit following theUnification of Germany, while others were formed from territory which previously belonged to other city district(s), such asDornbusch andRiederwald.
Bergen-Enkheim was the last suburb to become part of Frankfurt on 1 January 1977.
Flughafen became an official city district in 1979. It covers the area of Frankfurt Airport that had belonged to Sachsenhausen and the neighboring city ofMörfelden-Walldorf.
Frankfurt's youngest city district isFrankfurter Berg. It was part of Bonames until 1996.
Kalbach was officially renamedKalbach-Riedberg in 2006 because of the large residential housing development in the area known as Riedberg.
Together with these towns (and some larger nearby towns, e.g.,Hanau,Rodgau,Dreieich,Langen) Frankfurt forms a contiguous built-up urban area calledStadtregion Frankfurt which is not an official administrative district. The urban area had an estimated population of 2.3 million in 2010, and is the13th-largest urban area in the EU.
Frankfurt has atemperate-oceanic climate (Köppen:Cfb). Its climate features cool winters with frequent rain showers and overcast skies, and warm to hot summers. The average annual temperature is 11.4 °C (52.5 °F), with monthly mean temperatures ranging from 2.7 °C (36.9 °F) in January to 20.8 °C (69.4 °F) in July. The city is one of the warmest ofGermany inwinter.[31]
Thegrowing season is longer when compared to the rest of Germany, thus resulting in an early arrival of springtime in the region, with trees typically leafing out already toward the end of March.
Winters in Frankfurt are generally mild or at least not freezing with a small possibility of snow, especially in January and February but dark and often overcast. Frankfurt is, on average, covered with snow only for around 10 to 20 days per year.[32] The temperature falls below 0 °C on about 64 days and the daily maximum stays below freezing for about 10 days on average per year.
Because of the mild climate in the region, there are some well-known wine regions in the vicinity such asRhenish Hesse,Rheingau,Franconia (wine region) andBergstraße (route). There is also a microclimate on the northern bank of the riverMain which allowspalms,fig trees,lemon trees and southern European plants to grow in that area. The area is called the "Nizza" (the German word for the southern French townNice) and is one of the biggest parks with Mediterranean vegetation north of theAlps.[33]
Climate data for Frankfurt Airport 1991–2020, extremes 1949–present
With a population of 763,380 (2019) within its administrative boundaries[39] and of 2,300,000 in the actualurban area,[40] Frankfurt is thefifth-largest city in Germany, afterBerlin, Hamburg,Munich andCologne. Central Frankfurt has been aGroßstadt (a city with at least 100,000 residents by definition) since 1875. With 414,576 residents in 1910, it was the ninth largest city in Germany and the number of inhabitants grew to 553,464 beforeWorld War II. After the war, at the end of the year 1945, the number had dropped to 358,000. In the following years, the population grew again and reached an all-time-high of 691,257 in 1963. It dropped again to 592,411 in 1986 but has increased since then. According to the demographic forecasts for central Frankfurt, the city will have a population up to 813,000 within its administrative boundaries in 2035[41] and more than 2.5 million inhabitants in its urban area.
During the 1970s, the state government ofHesse wanted to expand the city's administrative boundaries to include the entire urban area. This would have made Frankfurt officially the second-largest city in Germany after Berlin with up to 3 million inhabitants.[44] However, because local authorities did not agree, the administrative territory is still much smaller than its actual urban area.
Frankfurt has the largest Moroccan community in Germany, numbering about 8,000 people, and theRhine-Main area has about 20,000. ManyMoroccans came as guest workers in the 1970s. Today Frankfurt has many Moroccan restaurants, companies, shops, mosques and hamams. Due to the popularity of Moroccan culture in Frankfurt, it also led many people from theMaghreb and other African countries to move to Frankfurt. Famous singerNamika was born in Frankfurt to Moroccan parents.
Population of the 46 city districts on 31 December 2009
According to data from the cityregister of residents, 51.2% of the population had amigration background as of 2015, which means that a person or at least one of their parents was born with foreign citizenship. For the first time, a majority of the city residents had an at least part non-German background.[47] Moreover, three of four children in the city under the age of six had full or partial immigrant backgrounds,[48] and 27.7% of residents had a foreign citizenship.[49]
According to statistics, 46.7% of immigrants in Frankfurt come from other countries in the EU; 24.5% come from European countries that are not part of the EU; 15.7% come from Asia (including Western Asia and South Asia); 7.3% come from Africa; 3.4% come from North America (including theCaribbean and Central America); 0.2% come fromAustralia andNew Zealand; 2.3% come from South America; and 1.1% come from Pacific island nations. Because of this the city is often considered to be a multicultural city, and has been compared toNew York City andLondon.[50]
Frankfurt was historically aProtestant-dominated city. However, during the 19th century, an increasing number ofCatholics moved to Frankfurt. As of 2013[update], the largest Christian denominations were Catholicism (22.7% of the population) and Protestantism, especially Lutheranism (19.4%).[51]
The Jewish community has a history dating back to medieval times and has always ranked among the largest in Germany. Over 7,200 inhabitants are affiliated with the Jewish community, making it the second largest in Germany afterBerlin.[21] Frankfurt has four active synagogues.[52]
Due to the growing immigration of people from Muslim countries beginning in the 1960s, Frankfurt has a large Muslim community, estimated at 12% in 2006.[53] According to calculations based on census data for 21 countries of origin, the number of Muslim migrants in Frankfurt amounted to about 84,000 in 2011, making up 12.6% of the population.[54] The most prevalent countries of origin wereTurkey andMorocco. The Ahmadiyya Noor Mosque, constructed in 1959, is the city's largest mosque and the third largest in Germany. In 2020, the number of Muslims in Frankfurt's total population was estimated at 18%.[55]
The Frankfurt am Main city council (Stadtverordnetenversammlung) governs the city alongside the mayor. It is located in the city's medieval town hall, Römer, which is also used for representative and official purposes. The most recent city council election was held on 14 March 2021, and the results were as follows:
For elections to theHesse State Parliament, Frankfurt am Main is split up into six constituencies. In total 15 delegates represent the city in theLandtag inWiesbaden. The last election took place in October 2018. Six members of parliament were directly elected in their respective constituencies: Uwe Serke (CDU, Frankfurt am Main I),Miriam Dahlke (Greens, Frankfurt am Main II), Ralf-Norbert Bartel (CDU, Frankfurt am Main III),Michael Boddenberg (CDU, Frankfurt am Main IV), Markus Bocklet (Greens, Frankfurt am Main V) and Boris Rhein (CDU, Frankfurt am Main VI).
Delegates from Frankfurt often serve high-ranking positions in Hessian politics, e.g.Michael Boddenberg is Hessian Minister of Finance and Boris Rhein was elected President of the Landtag of Hesse in 2019.
According to an annual study byCushman & Wakefield, the European Cities Monitor (2010), Frankfurt has been one of the top three cities for international companies in Europe, after London and Paris, since the survey started in 1990.[59] It is the only German city considered to be analpha world city (category 3) as listed by theLoughborough University group's 2010 inventory,[60] which was a promotion from the group's 2008 inventory when it was ranked as an alpha minus world city (category 4).[61]
With over 922 jobs per 1,000 inhabitants, Frankfurt has the highest concentration of jobs in Germany. On work days and Saturdays, one million people commute from all over theRhein-Main-Area. The GRP per capita was €96,670 in 2019.[62]
The city is expected to benefit from international banks relocating jobs from London to Frankfurt as a result of Brexit to retain access to the EU market.[63][64] Thus far, Morgan Stanley, Citigroup Inc., Standard Chartered Plc and Nomura Holdings Inc. announced they would move their EU headquarters to Frankfurt.[64]
The European Central Bank (Europäische Zentralbank) is one of the world's most important central banks with a balance sheet total of around 7 trillion.[66] The ECB sets monetary policy for the Eurozone, consisting of 19EU member states that have adopted theEuro (€) as their common currency. From 1998 the ECB Headquarters have been located in Frankfurt, first in theEurotower at Willy-Brandt-Platz and in two other nearby high-rises. The newSeat of the European Central Bank in theOstend district, consisting of the former wholesale market hall (Großmarkthalle) and a newly built 185-meter skyscraper, was completed in late 2014. The new building complex was designed to accommodate up to 2,300 ECB personnel. The location is a few kilometers away from downtown and borders an industrial area as well as the Osthafen (East Harbor), It was primarily chosen because of its large premises which allows the ECB to install security arrangements without high fences.
The city honors the importance of the ECB by officially using the slogan "The City of the Euro" since 1998.
TheDeutsche Bundesbank (German Federal Bank), located inGinnheim, was established in 1957 as the central bank for the Federal Republic of Germany. Until the euro (€) was introduced in 1999, the Deutsche Bundesbank was responsible for the monetary policy of Germany and for the German currency, theDeutsche Mark (DM). The Bundesbank was greatly respected for its control of inflation through the second half of the 20th century. Today the Bundesbank is an integral part of theEuropean System of Central Banks (ESCB) which is formed by all 27 EU member states. Its bilance sheet total is around 2,7 trillion,[67] making it the 4th biggest central bank.
In 2010, 63 national and 152 international banks had a registered office, including the headquarters of the major German banks, as well as 41 offices of international banks.[8] Frankfurt is therefore known as Bankenstadt ("City of the banks") and nicknamed "Mainhattan" (aportmanteau of the localMain river andManhattan in New York City) or "Bankfurt". 73,200 people were employed at banks in 2010.
Deutsche Bank — Germany's largestcommercial bank. It had 15% share of private customers and total assets of €1,900 billion in 2010. Deutsche Bank ranks among the 30 largest banks in the world and the ten largest banks in Europe.[68] Deutsche Bank is listed on theDAX, thestock market index of the 30 largest German business companies at the Frankfurt Stock Exchange. In November 2010 Deutsche Bank bought the majority of shares of competitorPostbank. Itsheadquarters are located at Taunusanlage in the financial district.
DZ Bank — Central institution for more than 900co-operative banks (Volksbanken und Raiffeisenbanken) and their 12,000 branch offices in Germany and is a corporate and investment bank. It is Germany's second-largest bank (total assets: €509 billion). The DZ Bank Group defines itself primarily as a service provider for the local Volksbanken and Raiffeisenbanken and their 30 million clients. The DZ Bank headquarters are theWestend Tower and theCity-Haus at Platz der Republik. The DZ Bank Group includesUnion Investment, DVB Bank andReisebank, which are also headquartered in Frankfurt.
KfW Bankengruppe — Government-owned development bank formed in 1948 as part of theMarshall Plan. KfW provides loans for approved purposes at lower rates than commercial banks, especially to medium-sized businesses. With total assets of €507 billion (2017), it is Germany's third-largest bank. The KfW headquarters are located in theWestend district at Bockenheimer Landstraße and Senckenberganlage.
Commerzbank — Germany's fourth-largest bank by total assets (2017). In 2009, Commerzbank merged with competitorDresdner Bank, then the third-largest German bank. Due to the merger and the higher credit risks, Commerzbank was 25%nationalized during theGreat Recession. It is listed in the DAX. Its headquarters are atCommerzbank Tower (259 meters), the second-tallest building in the EU, at Kaiserplatz.
Landesbank Hessen-Thüringen – Landesbank Hessen-Thüringen, or shortHelaba, is a commercial bank owned by the states ofHesse andThuringia (Landesbank). As such, it is a service provider for the localSparkassen. Helaba is one of nineLandesbanken and is the fifth-largest in Germany. It is located in the 200-meter-tallMain Tower in the financial district, the only skyscraper in Frankfurt with an observation desk open to the public.
DekaBank – DekaBank is the central asset manager of theSparkassen in Germany. The headquarters of DekaBank are located at theTrianon skyscraper at Mainzer Landstraße.
Bull and bear in front of the Frankfurt Stock Exchange
The Frankfurt Stock Exchange (Frankfurter Wertpapierbörse) began in the ninth century. By the 16th century Frankfurt had developed into an important European hub for trade fairs and financial services. Today the Frankfurt Stock Exchange is by far the largest in Germany, with a turnover of more than 90 percent of the Germanstock market and is the third-largest in Europe after theLondon and theParis. The most importantstock market index is theDAX, the index of the 30 largest German business companies listed at the stock exchange. The stock exchange is owned and operated byDeutsche Börse, which is itself listed in the DAX. Deutsche Börse also owns the Europeanfutures exchangeEurex and clearing companyClearstream. Trading takes place exclusively via theXetra trading system, with redundant floor brokers taking on the role of market-makers on the new platform.
On 1 February 2012 European Commission blocked the proposed merger of Deutsche Börse andNYSE Euronext. "The merger between Deutsche Börse and NYSE Euronext would have led to a near-monopoly in European financial derivatives worldwide. These markets are at the heart of the financial system and it is crucial for the whole European economy that they remain competitive. We tried to find a solution, but the remedies offered fell far short of resolving the concerns."[69] European competition commissionerJoaquín Almunia said.
It is located downtown at the Börsenplatz. Deutsche Börse's headquarters are formally registered in Frankfurt, but it moved most of its employees to a high-rise called "The Cube" inEschborn in 2010, primarily due to significantly lower localcorporate taxes.
Frankfurt Trade Fair (Messe Frankfurt) has the third-largest exhibition site in the world with a total of 578,000 m2 (6,220,000 sq ft). The trade fair premises are located in the western part betweenBockenheim, theWestend and theGallus district. It houses ten exhibition halls with a total of 321,754 m2 (3,463,330 sq ft) of space and 96,078 m2 (1,034,170 sq ft) of outdoor space.[citation needed]
Frankfurt and the riverRhine tributaryMain acquired transnational economic importance in theMiddle Ages. In 1337 theHoly Roman Emperor Louis IV of Bavaria issued a diploma privilege so that any other city was not allowed to establish a market or trade fair if this could harm the Frankfurt Trade Fair in any way. This imperial backing allowed Frankfurt to retain the commanding importance of the Frankfurt Trade Fair for centuries. In the Middle Ages the full range of manufactured and semi-processed commodities were trade at Frankfurt Fairs.[70]
Hosted in Frankfurt are theFrankfurt Book Fair (Frankfurter Buchmesse), the world's largest book fair, the Ambiente Frankfurt, the world's largestconsumer goods fair, the Achema, the world's largest plant engineering fair, and many more like Paperworld, Christmasworld, Beautyworld, Tendence Lifestyle or Light+Building. Messe Frankfurt GmbH, the owner and operator company, organized 87 exhibitions in 2010, 51 thereof in foreign countries. It is one of the largest trade fair companies with commercial activities in over 150 countries.[citation needed]
Frankfurt Airport is one of the busiest airports in the world and is also the single largest place of work in Germany with over 500 companies which employ 71,500 people (2010).[71]
The largest company at Frankfurt Airport is Lufthansa, Germany'sflag carrier and Europe's largest airline. Lufthansa employs 35,000 people in Frankfurt.[73][74] The Lufthansa Aviation Center (LAC) is the main operation base of Lufthansa at Frankfurt Airport. The airport serves as Lufthansa's primaryhub with 157 worldwide destinations (compared to 110 destinations atMunich Airport, Lufthansa's second-largest hub).Lufthansa Cargo is based in Frankfurt and operates its largest cargo center (LCC) at Frankfurt Airport.Lufthansa Flight Training is also based here.
Condor is a German airline based at Frankfurt Airport.
DWS Investments is one of the largestinvestment trust company in Germany and manages €859 billion fund assets. It is one of the ten largest investment trust companies in the world.[75] Other large investment trust companies areUniversal Investment,[76] Allianz Global Investors Europe (a division ofAllianz SE, and a top-five global active investment manager),Union Investment and Deka Investmentfonds.
Frankfurt has the highest concentration of lawyers in Germany, with one lawyer per 97 inhabitants (followed byDüsseldorf with a ratio of 1/117 andMunich with 1/124) in 2005.[77]
Frankfurt is home to the German headquarters ofNestlé, the world's largestfood company, located inNiederrad. Other important food companies areFerrero SpA (German headquarters) and Radeberger Gruppe KG, the largest private brewery group in Germany.
The South-Koreanautomobile manufacturerKia Motors moved its European headquarters to Frankfurt in 2007. In the same year, Italian manufacturerFiat opened its new German headquarters. The automotive supplierContinental AG has the headquarters and a major manufacturing plant of its Chassis & Safety division (formerly ITT Automotive) located in Frankfurt Rödelheim.
Frankfurt has Germany's highest concentration of homeowners. This is partly attributed to the financial sector, but also to its cosmopolitan nature, with expatriates and immigrants representing one-fourth of its population. For this reason, Frankfurt's property market often operates differently than the rest of the country where the prices are generally flatter.
Frankfurt is one of Germany's leading tourist destinations. In addition to its infrastructure and economy, its diversity supports a vibrant cultural scene. This blend of attractions led 4.3 million tourists (2012) to visit Frankfurt.[79] The Hotels in central Frankfurt offer 34,000 beds in 228 hotels, of which 13 are luxury hotels and 46 are first-class hotels.[80]
Frankfurt is home to companies from the chemical, transportation, telecommunication and energy industries. Some of the larger companies are:
Industriepark Höchst — Anindustrial park inHöchst. It is one of Germany's largest with over 90 companies from thepharmaceutical, thechemical and thebiotechnology industry, includingCelanese,Clariant,BASF,Merck KGaA andSiemens. It was founded by chemical companyHoechst AG in 1874. At the beginning of the 1980s Hoechst AG was the largest pharmaceutical corporation and Industriepark Höchst was known as "the pharmacy of the world". Hoechst AG merged withRhône-Poulenc to becomeAventis in 1999 and in 2004 Aventis merged withSanofi-Synthélabo to becomeSanofi-Aventis. In 2005, around 22,000 people worked at Industriepark Höchst. In 2011,Ticona now part ofCelanese, an international manufacturer of engineeringpolymers, moved to Industriepark Höchst.
Mainova – The largest regionalenergy supplier in Germany with about one million customers inHesse. It provides electricity, gas, heat and water. Its headquarters are Frankfurt-based.
Within Frankfurt's urban area are several important companies.
The business hub of Eschborn is located right at Frankfurt's city limits in the west and attracts businesses with significantly lowercorporate taxes compared to Frankfurt. Major companies in Eschborn includeErnst & Young,Vodafone Germany,Randstad NV and VR Leasing.Deutsche Börse moved most of its employees to Eschborn in 2010.
Rüsselsheim is internationally known for itsautomobile manufacturerOpel, one of the biggest automobile manufacturers in Germany. With 20,000 employees in 2003, Opel was one of the five largest employers inHesse.
Römer, the German word forRoman, is a complex of nine houses that form the Frankfurtcity hall (Rathaus). The houses were acquired by the city council in 1405 from a wealthy merchant family. The middle house became the city hall and was later connected with its neighbors. TheKaisersaal ("Emperor's Hall") is located on the upper floor and is where the newly crowned emperors held their banquets. The Römer was partially destroyed in World War II and later rebuilt. The surrounding square, the Römerberg, is named after the city hall.
TheNew Frankfurt Old Town was completed in 2018, including 15 reconstructed historical buildings.
The formerAltstadt (old town) quarter between the Römer and the Frankfurt Cathedral was redeveloped as theDom-Römer Quarter from 2012 to 2018, including 15reconstructions of historical buildings that were destroyed during World War II.
Frankfurt Cathedral
Frankfurt Cathedral (Frankfurter Dom) is not a cathedral, but the main Catholic church, dedicated toSt. Bartholomew. TheGothic building was constructed in the 14th and 15th centuries on the foundation of an earlier church from theMerovingian time. From 1356 onwards, kings of theHoly Roman Empire were elected in this church, and from 1562 to 1792,Roman-German emperors were crowned there.
Since the 18th century, St. Bartholomew's has been calledDom, although it was never a bishop's seat. In 1867 it was destroyed by fire and rebuilt in its present style. It was again partially destroyed inWorld War II and rebuilt in the 1950s. Its height is 95 meters. The cathedral tower has a viewing platform open to the public at a height of 66 meters, accessed through a narrow spiral staircase with 386 steps.
St. Paul's Church (Paulskirche) is a national historic monument in Germany because it was the seat of the first democratically elected parliament in 1848. It was established in 1789 as aProtestant church, but was not completed until 1833. Its importance has its roots in theFrankfurt Parliament, which met in the church during the revolutionary years of 1848/49 in order to write a constitution for a united Germany. The attempt failed because the monarchs ofPrussia and Austria did not want to lose power. In 1849, Prussian troops ended the democratic experiment by force and the parliament dissolved; the building was once more used for religious services.
St. Paul's was partially destroyed in World War II with its interior significantly damaged. It was quickly and symbolically rebuilt after the war albeit with modern alterations particularly to the interior; today it is used mainly for exhibitions and events.
Archäologischer Garten Frankfurt
The Archaeological Garden contains small parts of the oldest recovered buildings: an ancient Roman settlement and the Frankfurt Royal Palace (Kaiserpfalz Frankfurt) from the sixth century. The garden is located between the Römerberg and the cathedral. It was discovered after World War II when the area was heavily bombed and later partly rebuilt. The remains were preserved and are now open to the public. From 2013 until 2015 an event building, the Stadthaus ("City house"), has been built on top of the garden, but it remains open to the public free of charge.
Haus Wertheim
Wertheim House is the onlytimbered house in theAltstadt district that survived the heavy bombings of World War II undamaged. It is located on the Römerberg next to the Historical Museum.
Saalhof
TheSaalhof is the oldest conserved building in theAltstadt district and dates to the 12th century. It was used as an exhibition hall by Dutchclothiers when trade fairs were held during the 14th and 15th centuries. The Saalhof was partly destroyed in World War II and later rebuilt. Today it serves as a part of theHistorical Museum.
Eiserner Steg
The Eiserner Steg (Iron Bridge) is a pedestrian-only bridge across the Main that connects Römerberg and Sachsenhausen. It was built in 1868 and was the second bridge to cross the river. After World War II, when it was blown up by theWehrmacht, it was quickly rebuilt in 1946. Today some 10,000 people cross the bridge on a daily basis.
TheAlte Oper is a formeropera house, hence the name "Old Opera". The opera house was built in 1880 by architect Richard Lucae. It was one of the major opera houses in Germany until it was heavily damaged in World War II. Until the late 1970s, it was a ruin, nicknamed "Germany's most beautiful ruin". Former FrankfurtLord Mayor Rudi Arndt called for blowing it up in the 1960s, which earned him the nickname "Dynamite-Rudi". (Later on, Arndt said he never had meant his suggestion seriously.)
Public pressure led to its refurbishment and reopening in 1981. Today, it functions as a famous concert hall, while operas are performed at the "new" Frankfurt Opera. The inscription on thefrieze of the Alte Oper says: "Dem Wahren, Schönen, Guten" ("To the true, the beautiful, the good").
Eschenheimer Turm
The Eschenheim Tower (Eschenheimer Turm) was erected at the beginning of the 15th century and served as a city gate as part of late-medieval fortifications. It is the oldest and most unaltered building in theInnenstadt district.
Although todayHauptwache is mostly associated with the inner-city underground train stationof the same name, the name originates from abaroque building on the square above the station. The Hauptwache building was constructed in 1730 and was used as a prison, therefore the name that translates as "main guard-house". Today the square surrounding the building is also called "Hauptwache" (formal:An der Hauptwache). It is situated downtown opposite to St. Catherine's Church and houses a famous café.
Frankfurt Central Station (Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof), which opened in 1888, was built as the central train station for Frankfurt to replace three smaller downtown train stations and to boost the needed capacity for travellers. It was constructed as aterminus station and was the largest train station in Europe by floor area until 1915 whenLeipzig Central Station was opened. Its three main halls were constructed in aneorenaissance-style, while the later enlargement with two outer halls in 1924 was constructed inneoclassic-style.
Frankfurter Hof
The Frankfurter Hof is a landmark downtown hotel at Kaiserplatz, built from 1872 to 1876. It is part ofSteigenberger Hotels group and is considered the city's most prestigious.
St. Leonhard
St. Leonhard, on the Main close to the bridge Eiserner Steg, is a Catholiclate Gothichall church, derived from aRomanesque stylebasilica beginning in 1425. It is the only one of nine churches in the Old Town that survived World War II almost undamaged. The parish serves the English-speaking community. The church has been under restoration from 2011 until 2019.[86]
Gründerzeit quarters
Around the city centre there are wide spread quarters full ofGründerzeit architecture. Buildings of that typ often sport richly-decorated façades in the form of Historicism such as Gothic Revival, Renaissance Revival, German Renaissance and Baroque Revival.
Around the city center of Frankfurt are several former independent villages, now part of the city, withtimber framed centres and even whole old towns likeHöchst,Seckbach,Niederursel andBergen-Enkheim. Overall there are around 14.500 buildings in Frankfurt built before 1919[27] and around 3.000 of them aretimber framed houses.[87]
IG Farben Building – Also known asPoelzig Building (Poelzig-Bau) after its architectHans Poelzig, it was built from 1928 to 1930 as the corporate headquarters ofI.G. Farbenindustrie AG. It is located in theWestend district and bordersGrüneburgpark in the west. Upon its completion, the complex was thelargest office building in Europe and remained so until the 1950s. The building served as headquarters for research projects relating to the development ofsynthetic oil andrubber and the manufacturing ofmagnesium, lubricating oil, explosives,methanol, andZyklon B, the lethal gas used inconcentration camps.[88][89] After World War II, it served as the headquarters for theSupreme Allied Command and from 1949 to 1952 the High Commissioner for Germany (HICOG). It became the principal location for implementing theMarshall Plan, which largely financed the post-war reconstruction of Europe. The state apparatus of theFederal German Government was devised there. It served as the headquarters for theUS Army's V Corps and the Northern Area Command (NACOM) until 1995 when the US Army returned control of the IG Farben Building to the German government. It was purchased on behalf of theGoethe University Frankfurt by the state ofHesse. In October 2001 it became part of the Westend Campus of Goethe University.
IG Farben Building, now the central lecture building of the Westend Campus of the Goethe University
Die Welle (The Wave), built 1998–2003, a complex of three wavelike-formed office buildings next to the Opernplatz.
Alte Stadtbibliothek, rebuilt 2003–2005, reconstruction of the old public library house originally built 1820–1825.
Palais Thurn und Taxis, rebuilt 2004–2009, reconstruction of a palace originally built 1731–1739.
MyZeil, built 2004–2009, shopping mall at the Zeil with an imposing vaulted glass-structure.
The Squaire (portmanteau ofsquare andair), also known asAirrail Center Frankfurt, is a 660 m (2,165.35 ft) long and 45 m (147.64 ft) tall office building located atFrankfurt Airport. It was built from 2006 to 2011 on top of an existing railway station (Frankfurt Airport long distance Station) and has a connecting bridge to Terminal 1 for pedestrians. Its total of 140,000 m2 (1,506,947 sq ft) rentable floor space makes it Germany's largest office building.
Frankfurt is unique among German cities with regards toskyscrapers. Since the 1970s some of the tallest buildings in Germany have been built along the Mainzer Landstrasse. TheMain Tower was completed in 1999 with its top floor skydeck and penthouse restaurant designed to be open to tourists.[90] Frankfurt hosts 20 out of Germany's 21skyscrapers. Most skyscrapers and high-rise office buildings are located in the financial district (Bankenviertel), around the trade fair premises (Europaviertel) and atMainzer Landstraße between Opernplatz and Platz der Republik, which connects the two areas.
The 20 skyscrapers are:
Commerzbank Tower, 259.0 m (849.74 ft) – designed byNorman Foster, when the tower was completed in 1997 it was the tallest building in Europe with 259 meters. It is still the tallest building in Frankfurt and constructed in steel.[91]
Messeturm, 256.5 m (841.54 ft) – The EU's third-tallest building, the tallest building in Europe 1990–1997; main tenant isGoldman Sachs (Germany).
The original Henninger Turm in 2007Skyline at dusk, seen from Deutschherrnbrücke (2014)
For centuries,St. Bartholomeus's Cathedral was the tallest structure. The first building to exceed the 95-meter-high cathedral was not an office building but agrain silo 120 m-high (390 ft) high.[citation needed] TheHenninger Turm was opened in the 1960s and the silo was topped by arevolving restaurant designed to be a landmark. The Henninger Turm was extensively refurbished and is now a residential high-rise.[92]
The first high-rise building boom came in the 1970s whenWestend Gate (then calledPlaza Büro Center) andSilberturm were constructed and became the tallest buildings in Germany with a height of 159.3 meters and 166.3 meters, respectively. Around the same time,Frankfurter Büro Center andCity-Haus (142.4 meters and 142.1 meters) were constructed at Mainzer Landstraße andEurotower (148.0 meters) andGarden Tower (127.0 meters; then calledHelaba-Hochhaus) were constructed in the financial district.
None of the buildings constructed during the 1980s surpassed Silberturm. The most famous buildings from this decade are theDeutsche Bank Twin Towers at Taunusanlage, both 155.0 meters tall.
The 1990s featured a second wave.Messeturm, built on the trade fair site, reached a height of 256.5 meters (842 ft) and became the tallest building in Europe by 1991. It was overtaken by the 259 m-high (850 ft)Commerzbank Tower in 1997. Other tall buildings from this decade areWestendstrasse 1 (208 meters (682 ft)),Main Tower (200 meters (660 ft)) andTrianon (186 meters (610 ft)).
Top of theEuropaturm, a 337 m (1,106 ft) communications tower
Europaturm — The Europe Tower is atelecommunications tower, also known as the Frankfurt TV Tower, built from 1974 to 1979. With a height of 337.5 meters it is the tallest tower and the second tallest structure in Germany after theFernsehturm Berlin. It was open to the public until 1999, with an entertainment establishment in the revolving top. It is normally referred to by locals as the "Ginnheimer Spargel" (Ginnheim Asparagus), but stands a few meters withinBockenheim district.
Henninger Turm — The Henninger Tower was a 120-mete-highgrain silo built from 1959 to 1961 and owned byHenninger Brewery. It was the highest structure until 1974. The Henninger Tower had two rotating restaurants at the height of 101 and 106 meters and an open-air observation deck at the height of 110 meters. The tower closed to the public in October 2002 and was demolished in 2013 to be replaced by a 140 m (459 ft) tall residential tower, which is externally inspired by the old Henninger Turm. The cornerstone for this project was laid in June 2014 and construction was completed in summer 2017. The new tower offers 207 luxury flats[93] and houses the non-rotating restaurant "Franziska". From 1962 to 2008 a famous yearlycycling race was named after the tower, the "Radrennen Rund um den Henninger Turm" (Cycling race around Henninger Tower). The now-renamed race is still a yearly event.
Goetheturm – The Goethe Tower was a 43 m-high (141 ft) tower on the northern edge of theFrankfurt City Forest inSachsenhausen. It was the fifth tallest wood construction structure in Germany. It was built in 1931 and was a popular place for day-trippers until it burned down in 2017. A faithful reconstruction has been opened to the public on 12 October 2020, exactly three years after the original's destruction.[94]
Zeil – Frankfurt's central shopping street is a mile long and has been a shopping destination for more than a century. Only the western half of Zeil is pedestrianized.MyZeil is a stereotypical shopping mall.[95] Three more shopping malls occupy the Zeil: UpperZeil (replacing theZeilgalerie, which was demolished in 2016),Galeria Kaufhof andKarstadt, as well as large fashion retail clothing stores fromPeek & Cloppenburg andC&A. During the month before Christmas, the extended pedestrian-only zone is host toFrankfurt Christmas Market, one of the largest and oldest Christmas markets in Germany. Zeil is bordered by two large public squares,Hauptwache in the west andKonstablerwache in the east. It is the second most expensive street for shops to rent in Germany after theKaufingerstraße in Munich. 85 percent of the shops are retail chains such asH&M,Saturn,Esprit,Zara orNewYorker.
Freßgass – (officiallyKalbächer Gasse andGroße Bockenheimer Straße) is a central pedestrian-only street section between Börsenstraße and Opernplatz. The name translates as "feeding alley" because of its high concentration of gastronomy, but lately prestigious shops (e.g.,Apple Store,Hugo Boss,Porsche Design) have moved here due to the lack of space in the neighboringGoethestraße, displacing old, established restaurants, butchers and delicatessens.
Berger Straße – Frankfurt's longest shopping street. It starts in the city center, runs throughNordend andBornheim and ends inSeckbach. The street is less crowded than the Zeil and offers a greater variety of smaller shops, restaurants and cafés.
Leipziger Straße – Central shopping street in the Bockenheim district starting at Bockenheimer Warte going towards West. High density of shops for daily needs.
Braubachstraße – In theAltstadt district, close to the historic sites of the city, offers a large variety of art galleries, second-hand bookshops and antique shops.
Münchener Straße – In theBahnhofsviertel district, located between the central station and Willy-Brandt-Platz, is the most multicultural shopping street with many shops selling imported products mainly from Turkey, the Middle East and Asia.
Kleinmarkthalle – (literally:Small Market Hall) is a market hall close to Konstablerwache square offering fresh food and flowers. In addition to regional delicacies likegreen sauce imported goods are offered. The Kleinmarkthalle is the largest public marketplace in Frankfurt.
With a large forest, many parks, the Main riverbanks and the two botanical gardens, Frankfurt is considered a "green city": More than 50 percent of the area within the city limits are protected green areas.[96]
Frankfurter Grüngürtel – The Green Belt is a ring-shaped public green space around the city. With 8,000ha it covers a third of the administrative area. It includes the Frankfurter Stadtwald (Frankfurt City Forest, Germany's largest forest within a city), the Schwanheimer Düne (SchwanheimDune), the Niddatal (NiddaValley), the Niddapark, the Lohrberg (Lohr Mountain, Frankfurt's onlyvineyard), the Huthpark, the Enkheimer Ried (EnkheimMarsh), the Seckbacher Ried (SeckbachMarsh) and the Fechenheimer Mainbogen (a S-shaped part of theMain river inFechenheim). The Green Belt is aprotected area which means that housing is not allowed. The Green Belt was formally created in 1991 with its own constitution.
Mainuferpark – The Mainuferpark (Main Riverbanks Park) is the common term to describe the inner-city Main riverbanks. It is an auto-free zone with large green areas that is popular with strollers and tourists, especially in the summertime, when it can become crowded. The southern riverbank, which continues further toOffenbach am Main andHanau, offers the best skyline views. The northern riverbank ends in the west at the former Westhafen (West Harbor, a residential housing area) and is growing to the east: A former industrial-used area between the newSeat of the European Central Bank and the Osthafen (East Harbor) has become a park named Hafenpark (Harbor Park), which offers outdoor courts for basketball, soccer and a skatepark.
Wallanlagen – TheWallanlagen (formerramparts) relate to the former ring-shapedcity wall fortifications around theAltstadt and theInnenstadt district (abolished 1804–1812), now a series of parks. Building is not allowed, with a few exceptions, the most famous being theAlte Oper (built 1880) at the Opernplatz. The part between the northern Main riverbank and the Opernplatz, referred to officially as Taunusanlage and Gallusanlage, is locally known as "Central Park" (a reference to thefamous park inManhattan), because of the skyscrapers which stand on both sides.
Nizza Park – At the juncture of the northern Main riverbank and the Wallanlagen is a famous small park called Nizza. The name of the park recallsNice in southern France, because it is one of the warmest areas with a nearlymediterranean climate. NumerousMediterranean flora grow there and can survive outside during the winter.
Garten des Himmlischen Friedens – "Garden of Heavenly Peace", named after theTiananmen Gate in Beijing, is a Chinese-styled park in theNordend district and part of the larger Bethmannpark. It contains Chinese buildings, with building materials imported from China and built by Chinese workers in the 1980s. Hosts traditional Chinese plants and herbs.
Other parks – The largest parks are the Niddapark (168 ha), the Ostpark (32 ha) and theGrüneburgpark (29 ha).
With more than 30 museums, Frankfurt has one of the largest variety of museums in Europe. Most museums are part of theMuseumsufer, located on the front row of both sides of theMain riverbank or nearby, which was created on an initiative by cultural politicianHilmar Hoffmann.[97]
Ten museums are located on the southern riverbank inSachsenhausen between the Eiserner Steg and the Friedensbrücke. The street itself,Schaumainkai, is partially closed to traffic on Saturdays for Frankfurt's largestflea market.
Other museums are the Dialogmuseum (Dialogue Museum) in theOstend district,Eintracht Frankfurt Museum atDeutsche Bank Park, the Frankfurter Feldbahnmuseum (Light Railway Museum Frankfurt) in theGallus district, the Verkehrsmuseum Frankfurt (Transport Museum Frankfurt) in theSchwanheim district, the Hammer Museum in theBahnhofsviertel district and the Geldmuseum der Deutschen Bundesbank (Money Museum of the German Federal Bank) in theGinnheim district.The Explora Museum+Wissenschaft+Technik (Explora Museum of Science and Engineering) in theNordend district was closed in 2016. Most museums open around 10:00 am local time, and it is possible to comfortably visit four museums in one day, a fact many tourists take advantage of.
Eurodance andTrance music originated in Frankfurt. In 1989 German producers Michael Münzing and Luca Anzilotti (under the pseudonyms Benito Benites and John "Virgo" Garrett III) formed theSnap! project. Snap! songs combinedRap andSoul vocals adding rhythm by using computer technology and mixing electronic sounds, bass and drums. By doing so a new genre was born: Eurodance.[98] In the early 1990s, DJs includingSven Väth and DJ DAG (ofDance 2 Trance) first played a harder, deeper style ofacid house that became popular worldwide over the next decade as Trance music. Some of the early and most influential Eurodance, Trance andTechno acts, e.g.,La Bouche,Jam and Spoon,Magic Affair,Culture Beat,Snap!,Dance 2 Trance,Oliver Lieb andHardfloor, and record labels such asHarthouse andEye Q, were based in the city in the early 1990s.
Oper Frankfurt – A leading Germany opera company and one of Europe's most important. It was electedOpera house of the year (of Germany, Austria and German-speaking Switzerland) by German magazineOpernwelt several times. It was also electedBest opera house in Germany in 2010 and 2011. Its orchestra was votedOrchestra of the year in 2009, 2010 and 2011.[99] It is part of the Double SystemStädtische Bühnen Frankfurt.
Schauspiel Frankfurt – Theater atWilly-Brandt-Platz in the financial district, next to the Frankfurt Opera in the Double System Städtische Bühnen Frankfurt.
Festhalle Frankfurt – Multi-purpose hall next to theMesseturm at the grounds of theFrankfurt Trade Fair. It is mostly used for concerts, exhibitions or sport events and can accommodate up to 13,500.
Deutsche Bank Park – Frankfurt's largest sports stadium and the seventh largest in Germany. It is located in theFrankfurt City Forest nearNiederrad. It is primarily used for soccer and concerts with a capacity up to 58,000. It opened in 1925 and underwent several major reconstructions. Locals still prefer to call the stadium by its traditional name,Waldstadion (Forest Stadium). Home toEintracht Frankfurt.
hr-Sendesaal – Venue of the Frankfurt Radio Symphony.
Jahrhunderthalle –Century Hall is a large concert and exhibition hall inUnterliederbach district. Sometimes referred to as "Jahrhunderthalle Höchst", because it was built to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the chemical companyHoechst AG in 1963.
The English Theatre – Located on the ground floor of theGallileo high-rise building, this is the largest English theater in continental Europe. It was established in 1979.
Tigerpalast –Tiger Palace is avarieté near the Zeil. It was established in 1988 and houses the famous Tiger-Restaurant which was awarded aMichelin star.
Künstlerhaus Mousonturm –House of Artists Mouson Tower has a smaller budget than traditional theaters and uses more unconventional performing methods. It is located in an old factory in theOstend district.
Die Schmiere –The Grease is acabaret operational since 1950 focusing on satire.[100]
Die Komödie –The Comedy is aboulevard theater near downtown Frankfurt's Willy-Brandt-Platz.
Palmengarten is located in theWestend district and is Hesse's largest botanical garden, covering 22 ha (54 acres). It opened to the public in 1871.[citation needed] Designed by the architect Heinrich Siesmayer the botanical exhibits in free-air or in greenhouses includeagave,succulents andazaleas.[101]
Botanischer Garten der Goethe-Universität isarboretum. It contains about 5,000species, with special collections ofRubus (45 species) and indigenous plants of central Europe. It is organized into two major areas: Thegeobotanical area contains analpine garden,arboretum,meadows,steppes,marsh, and a pond, as well as collections of plants from theCanary Islands,Caucasus, East Asia,Mediterranean, and North America and the systematic and ecological collection includes crop plants,endangered species, ornamental plants,roses, and theNeuer Senckenbergischer Arzneipflanzengarten (New Senckenberg Medicinal Plant Garden), which measures 1,200 m2 (13,000 sq ft). The Botanical Garden, Palmengarten,Grüneburgpark collectively form the largest inner-city green area.
Instituto Cervantes – Named afterMiguel de Cervantes, one of the most important Spanish authors, this is the world's largest organization for promoting the study and teaching of Spanish language and culture. 54 such Centros Cervantes across the world offer Spanish language and history courses. The Frankfurt branch was officially opened in September 2008 byFelipe, Prince of Asturias and his wifeLetizia, Princess of Asturias. It is located in the so-calledAmerika-Haus.
Institut Français – A French public industrial and commercial organization (EPIC), started in 1907 by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for promoting French, francophone as well as local cultures around the world. The French Institute works closely with the French cultural network abroad consisting of more than 150 branches and nearly 1,000 branches of theAlliance française around the world.
Istituto Italiano di Cultura – A worldwide non-profit organization created by the Italian government. It promotes Italian culture and is involved in the teaching of the Italian language; there are 83 Italian Cultural Institutes throughout major cities around the world.
Confucius Institute – A non-profit public educational organization affiliated with the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, whose aim is to promote Chinese language and culture, support local Chinese teaching internationally, and facilitate cultural exchanges. There are over 480 Confucius Institutes worldwide.
Central and Eastern European Online Library – CEEOL is an online archive providing access to full-text articles from humanities and social science scholarly journals on Central, Eastern and South-Eastern European topics. Subject areas include anthropology, culture and society, economy, gender studies, history, Judaic studies, fine arts, literature, linguistics, political sciences and social sciences, philosophy and religion. CEEOL is operated by Questa.Soft GmbH.
Museumsuferfest –Museums Riverbank Festival is one of Germany's biggest cultural festivals, attracting more than 3 million visitors over three days at the end of August along theMain riverbank downtown. The 20 museums there open far into the night. It offers live music, dance shows, booths for crafts, jewelry, clothes and food stands from around the world.
Dippemess – Frankfurt's oldest folk festival is theFestival of Stoneware, which takes place semi-annually around Easter and the end of September in the eastern area. "Dippe" is a regionalHessian dialect word meaning "pot" or "jar" which would not be understood in most other German regions. Mentioned for the first time in the 14th century as an annual marketplace it is now more of an amusement park. The name of the festival derives from its original purpose when it was a fair where traditionally crafted jars, pots and other stoneware were on offer.
"OVO" at Luminale 2012
Luminale — The "festival of light" has taken place biannually since 2000, parallel to theLight + building exhibition at the trade fair. Many buildings are specially lit for the event. In 2008, more than 220 light installations could be seen, attracting 100,000 visitors.
Wäldchestag –Day of the forest is known as a regional holiday because until the 1990s it was common that Frankfurt's shops were closed on this day. The festival takes place over four days afterPentecost with the formal Wäldchestag on Tuesday. Its unique location is in theFrankfurt City Forest, south-west of downtown inNiederrad. "Wäldches" is a regional dialect of the German word "Wäldchen", meaning "small forest".
Nacht der Museen –Night of the museums takes place every year in April or May. 50 museums in Frankfurt and in the neighboring city ofOffenbach am Main are open until 2:00 am surrounded by special music events, dance performances, readings and guided tours. A free shuttle operates between the museums. In 2010, approximately 40,000 visitors attended.
Nacht der Clubs –Night of the clubs is an event similar to Nacht der Museen: On one night as many as 20 clubs can be visited with a single ticket for €12. Usually, club-door policies are loosened to attract new customers. A free shuttle runs between the clubs. 15,000 people participated in 2008.
Wolkenkratzer Festival — TheSkyscraper Festival is unique in Germany. It takes place irregularly, lately in May 2013, and attracted around 1.2 million visitors. For two days most skyscrapers are open to the public. Sky-divers, base jumpers, fireworks and laser shows are extra attractions.
Frankfurt offers a variety of restaurants, bars, pubs and clubs. Clubs concentrate in and around downtownand in theOstend district, mainly close to Hanauer Landstraße. Restaurants, bars and pubs concentrate inSachsenhausen,Nordend,Bornheim andBockenheim.
Inelectronic music, Frankfurt was a pioneering city in the late 1980s and early 1990s, with renowned DJs includingSven Väth,Marc Trauner,Scot Project andKai Tracid. One of the main venues of the earlyTrance music sound was theOmen nightclub from 1988 to 1998. Another popular disco club of the 1980s–1990s and a hotspot for Techno/Trance music was theDorian Gray, which was located within Terminal 1 at Frankfurt Airport from 1978 to 2000. Further popular venues were theU60311 (1998–2012) and theCoocoon Club inFechenheim (2004–2012). Notable live music venues of the past include theSinkkasten Arts Club (1971–2011) and theKing Kamehameha Club (1999–2013).
Among the most popular active rock and pop concert venues is theBatschkapp inSeckbach, which opened in 1976 as a center for autonomous and left-wing counterculture.
Frankfurt cupboard – The Baroque Frankfurt-style cupboards were used to store the family linen, one of them by Goethe's father, who took one cupboard to Rome. The most luxurious versions have wave-shaped parts, some are made of solid cherry wood inlaid with plumwood.
"Bembel" (jug) and "Geripptes" (glass)OriginalFrankfurter Würstchen served withpotato salad
Apfelwein –Apple wine orhard cider is regionally known as "Ebbelwoi", "Äppler" or "Stöffsche". It has an alcohol content of 5.5%–7% and a tart, sour taste. It is traditionally served in a glass, typically decorated with lozenges, called "Geripptes", a full glass is then called "Schoppen". Apfelwein is also available in a stoneware jar locally known as "Bembel". A group normally orders a "Bembel" and shares the contents. Apfelwein can be ordered as "sauergespritzer", which is apfelwein blended with 30% mineral water or as "süssgespritzer", which is Apfelwein blended with lemon soda, orange soda or fresh-pressed apple juice (lemon soda being the most common). Most of the pubs which serve Apfelwein are located inSachsenhausen, which is therefore known as "Ebbelwoi district". Due to its national drink Frankfurt is sometimes called "Big Ebbel" (pronunciation withHessian dialect), an homage toBig Apple, the famous nickname of New York City.
Grüne Soße –Green sauce is a sauce made with hard-boiled eggs, oil, vinegar, salt and a generous amount of seven fresh herbs, namely borage, sorrel, garden cress, chervil, chives, parsley and salad burnet. Variants, often due to seasonal availability include dill, lovage, lemon balm and spinach. Original green sauce Frankfurt-style is made of herbs that were gathered only on fields within the city limits.
Frankfurter Würstchen – "short Frankfurter" is a smallsausage made of smoked pork. They are similar tohot dogs. The name Frankfurter Würstchen has been trademarked since 1860.
Frankfurter Rippchen – Also known as Rippchen mit Kraut, this is a traditional dish which consists of cured pork cutlets, slowly heated insauerkraut or meat broth, and usually served with sauerkraut, mashed potatoes and yellow mustard.
Handkäs mit Musik – German regionalsour milk cheese (similar toHarzer) and a culinary specialty in theRhine Main Region. The traditional way of producing it is by hand. When it is topped with chopped onions it becomes "Handkäs mit Musik" (with music) because the onions are supposed to stimulate flatulence.
Frankfurter Kranz – Cake speciality believed to originate from Frankfurt.
Bethmännchen – "A little Bethmann" is a pastry made from marzipan with almond, powdered sugar, rosewater, flour, and egg. It is usually baked for Christmas.
Frankfurt was voted the seventh in theMercer Quality of Living Survey by the Mercer Quality of Living Survey (2012),[104] seventh in the Mercer Quality of Living Survey (2010) and 18th at theEconomist's World's Most Liveable Cities Survey (2011).[105] According to an annual citizen survey (2010), arranged by the city council, 66 percent inhabitants are satisfied or highly satisfied with the city, while only 6 percent said that they are dissatisfied. Compared to the 1993's survey the number of satisfied inhabitants has grown about 22 percent while the number of dissatisfied inhabitants was reduced by 8 percent. 84 percent of the inhabitants like to live in Frankfurt, 13 percent would rather choose to live somewhere else. 37 percent are satisfied with the public safety (1993: only 9 percent), 22 percent are dissatisfied (1993: 64 percent).[106]
Frankfurt consistently has the highest levels of crime per 100,000 inhabitants in Germany (15.976 crimes per annum in 2008) and is therefore dubbed the German "crime capital".[107] However, this statistic is often criticized[citation needed] because it ignores major factors: It is calculated based on the administrative 680,000-inhabitant figure while the urban area has 2.5 M inhabitants and on weekdays adds another million people[citation needed] (not counting the 53 million passengers passing through the airport each year). The rate for personal safety-relevant crimes such as murder, manslaughter, rape or bodily harm, is 3.4 percent, placing Frankfurt twelfth in the ranking (related to the official 680,000-inhabitant figure) or number 21 (related to the one-million-figure).[108] In 2018, the state of Hesse, where Frankfurt is located, was ranked the third-safest state in Germany.[109]
A third terminal is being constructed (planned to open in 2026). The third terminal will increase the capacity of the airport to over 90 million passengers per year.[110]
The airport can be reached by car or bus and has two railway stations, one for regional and one for long-distance traffic. TheS-Bahn lines S8 and S9 (directionOffenbach Ost orHanau Hbf) departing at theregional station take 10–15 minutes from the airport toFrankfurt Central Station and onwards toHauptwache station downtown), theIC andICE trains departing at thelong-distance station take 10 minutes to Frankfurt Central Station.
Frankfurt is a traffic hub for the German motorway (Autobahn) system. TheFrankfurter Kreuz is an Autobahn interchange close to the airport, where theBundesautobahn 3 (A3),Cologne toWürzburg, and theBundesautobahn 5 (A5),Basel toHanover, meet. With approximately 320,000 cars passing through it every day, it is Europe's most heavily used interchange. TheBundesautobahn 66 (A66) connects Frankfurt withWiesbaden in the west andFulda in the east. TheBundesautobahn 661 (A661) is mainly a commuter motorway that starts in the south (Egelsbach), runs through the eastern part and ends in the north (Oberursel). TheBundesautobahn 648 (A648) is a very short motorway in the western part which primarily serves as a fast connection between the A 66 and theFrankfurt Trade Fair. The A5 in the west, the A3 in the south and the A661 in the northeast form aring road around the inner city districts and define aLow-emission zone (Umweltzone; established in 2008), meaning that vehicles have to meet certain emission criteria to enter the zone.
The streets of central Frankfurt are usually congested with cars duringrush hour. Some areas, especially around the shopping streets Zeil, Goethestraße and Freßgass, are pedestrian-only streets.
(Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof, often abbreviated asFrankfurt (Main) Hbf orF-Hbf) is the largest railway station in Germany by railway traffic. By daily passenger volume, it ranks second (493,000 each) afterHamburg Central Station (550,000). It is located between theGallus, theGutleutviertel and theBahnhofsviertel district, not far away from the trade fair and the financial district. It serves as a major hub for long-distance trains (InterCity,ICE) and regional trains as well as for Frankfurt's public transport system. It is a stop for most of ICE high-speed lines, making it Germany's most important ICE station. ICE Trains to London via theChannel Tunnel were planned for 2013.[112] AllRhine-Main S-Bahn lines, twoU-Bahn lines (U4, U5), several tram and bus lines stop there. Regional and local trains are integrated in the Public transport systemRhein-Main-Verkehrsverbund (RMV), the second-largest integrated public transport systems in the world, afterVerkehrsverbund Berlin-Brandenburg.
Frankfurt Airport can be accessed by two railway stations:Frankfurt Airport long-distance station (Frankfurt Flughafen Fernbahnhof) is only for long-distance traffic and connects the airport to the main rail network, with most of theICE services using theCologne-Frankfurt high-speed rail line. The long-distance station is located outside the actual airport ground but has a connecting bridge for pedestrians to Terminal 1, concourse B.Frankfurt Airport regional station (Frankfurt Flughafen Regionalbahnhof) is for localS-Bahn trains (lines S8, S9) and regional trains. The regional station is located within Terminal 1, concourse B.
Frankfurt's third long-distance station isFrankfurt South station (Frankfurt Südbahnhof, often abbreviated asFrankfurt (Main) Süd orF-Süd), located inSachsenhausen. It is an important destination for local trains and trams (lines 15, 16 and 18) and the terminal stop for four U-Bahn lines (U1, U2, U3, U8) as well as three S-Bahn lines (S3, S4, S5). Line S6 also serves the station.
TheFrankfurt Trade Fair offers two railway stations:Messe station is for localS-Bahn trains (lines S3-S6) and is centrally located amid trade fair premises, while Festhalle/Messe station is served by U-Bahn line U4 and is located at the north-east corner of the premises.
Two other major downtown railway stations are Konstablerwache and Hauptwache, located on each end of the Zeil. They are the main stations to change from east-to-west-bound S-Bahn trains to north-to-south-bound U-Bahn trains. Konstablerwache station is the second-busiest railway station regarding daily passenger volume (98,000) after the central station. The third-busiest railway station is Hauptwache station (93,000).[113][114]
This Station, located in Bockenheim, is served by north-heading Long-Distance ICE trains, multiple regional trains, and four commuter S-Bahn lines (S3, S4, S5, S6). Additionally, it is an important terminal stop for three "Metrobus" lines (M32, M36, M73).
There are three stations forintercity bus services in Frankfurt: one at the south side of the Central Station, one at the Terminal 2 of the airport and another one at Stephanstraße.[115]
The city has tworapid transit systems: the U-Bahn and the S-Bahn, as well as an above-ground tram system. Information about the U- and S-Bahn can be found on the website of theRMV.[116]
TheU-Bahn has nine lines (U1 to U9) serving Frankfurt and the larger suburbs of Bad Homburg and Oberursel in the north. The trains that run on the U-Bahn are in factlight rail (Stadtbahn) as many lines travel along a track in the middle of the street instead of underground. The minimum service interval is 2.5 minutes, although the usual pattern is that each line runs at 7.5- to 10-minute intervals, which produce between 3- and 5-minute intervals on downtown tracks shared by more than one line.
Frankfurt has ten tram lines (11, 12, 14 to 21), with trams arriving usually every 10 minutes. Many sections are served by two lines, combining to run at 5-minute intervals during rush-hour. Trams only run above ground and serve more stops than the U-Bahn or the S-Bahn.
A number of bus lines complete the Frankfurt public transport system. Night buses replace U-Bahn and tram services between 1:30 am and 3:30 am.[117] The central junction for the night bus service is at the downtown square of Konstablerwache, where all night bus lines start and end.
Taxicabs can usually be found outside the major S-Bahn and U-Bahn stations, at the central station, the south station, the airport, the trade fair and in the crowded inner-city shopping streets. The common way to obtain a taxi is to either call a taxi operator or to go to a taxi rank. However, although not the norm, one can hail a passing taxi on the street.
Uber ceased operations in Frankfurt on 9 November 2015 after operating in the city for 18 months.[118] However,UberX and local cabs are available through the Uber app.[119]
Deutsche Bahn makes bicycles available for hire through theirCall a Bike service. The bicycles are stationed all over the city, including at selected railway stations. They can easily be spotted because of their eye-catching silver-red color. To rent a specific bike, riders either call a service number to get an unlock code or reserve the bike via the smartphone application. To return the bike, the rider locks it within a designated return area (and calls the service number, if not booked via the app).[120]
Nextbike also makes bicycles available for hire in Frankfurt. They are stationed all over the city. These can be spotted with their blue color scheme.
Cycle rickshaws (velotaxis), a type oftricycle designed to carry passengers in addition to the driver, are also available. These are allowed to operate in pedestrian-only areas and are therefore practical for sightseeing.
Frankfurt has a network of cycle routes. Many long-distance bike routes into the city have cycle tracks that are separate from motor vehicle traffic. A number of downtown roads are "bicycle streets" where the cyclist has the right of way and where motorized vehicles are only allowed access if they do not disrupt the cycle users. In addition, cyclists are allowed to ride many cramped one-way streets in both directions. As of 2015[update], 15 percent of citizens used bicycles.[121]
Since 15 June 2019, the use ofe-scooters was officially permitted by the German federal government. In Frankfurt, companies likeLime, TIER,Bird, voi.,Dott orBolt are offering their electric micro mobility vehicles for lease. However, their use is being regarded with increasing weariness due to frequent abuse (parking, speeding, vandalism, accidents) and has sparked a public debate about the need of further regulation of the e-scooter market.[122]
Frankfurt is one of two locations of the GermanFederal Financial Supervisory Authority (Bundesanstalt für Finanzdienstleistungsaufsicht, short:BaFin). The BaFin is an independent federal institution and acts as Germany'sfinancial regulatory authority.
Frankfurt is one of two sites of theGerman National Library (Deutsche Nationalbibliothek), the other beingLeipzig. The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek is auniversal library in Germany. Its task, unique in Germany, is to collect, permanently archive, comprehensively document and record bibliographically all German and German-language publications from 1913 on, foreign publications about Germany, translations of German works and the works of German-speaking emigrants published abroad between 1933 and 1945, and to make them available to the public.[133]
The oldest and best-known university is theJohann Wolfgang Goethe University, with locations in Bockenheim, Westend, and Riedberg, and the university hospital in Niederrad.Goethe Business School is part of the university'sHouse of Finance at Campus Westend. The Business School's Full-Time MBA program has over 70% international students.
TheFrankfurt University of Applied Sciences was created out of several older organisations in 1971, and offers over 38 study areas, in the arts, sciences, engineering and law. Some of the most important research projects: Planet Earth Simulator,FraLine-IT-School-Service, quantitative analysis ofmethane in human corpses with the help of a mass spectrometer, software engineering (e.g., fraDesk), analysis of qualitative and quantitative gas in human lungs, long-term studies onphotovoltaic modules (to name only a few).
The city is also home to a business school,Frankfurt School of Finance & Management, formerly known as theHochschule für Bankwirtschaft (Institution of Higher Learning for Banking Economics), with its new campus near Deutsche Nationalbibliothek U-Bahn stop (recently moving from its previous location in the Ostend (Eastend) neighborhood). In 2001, it became a specialist institution for Economics and Management, or FOM. Frankfurt School is consistently ranked among the best business schools in the world, attributed to its high research output and quality of undergraduate and graduate training.[134]
Frankfurt has the State Institution of Higher Learning for Artistic Education known as theStädelschule, founded in 1817 byJohann Friedrich Städel. It was taken over by the city in 1942 and turned into a state art school.
Frankfurt schools rank among the best-equipped schools nationwide for the availability of PCs and other media facilities.[citation needed] In order to assure maintenance and support of the school PCs, the city in cooperation with theUniversity of Applied Sciences launched the projectFraline – IT-Schul-Service, an initiative employing students to provide basic school IT-support.[citation needed]
TheFrankfurt Institute for Advanced Studies, sponsored by several institutional and private sources, is involved in theoretical research in physics, chemistry, neuroscience, and computer science.
Frankfurt is host to theRömisch-Germanische-Kommission (RGK), theGerman Archaeological Institute branch forprehistoric archeology in Germany and Europe. The RGK is involved in a variety of research projects. Its library, with over 200,000 items, is one of the largest archeological libraries in the world.[136]
Editorial department building ofFrankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung
Two important daily newspapers are published. The conservativeFrankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, also known asFAZ, was founded in 1949 and is the German newspaper with the widest circulation outside of Germany, with its editors claiming to deliver the newspaper to 148 countries every day. The FAZ has a circulation of over 380,000 copies daily. The other important newspaper, theFrankfurter Rundschau, was first published in 1945 and has a daily circulation of over 181,000.
Several magazines also originate from Frankfurt. The localJournal Frankfurt is the best-known magazine for events, parties, and "insider tips".Öko-Test is a consumer-oriented magazine that focuses on ecological topics.Titanic is a well-known and often criticizedsatirical magazine with a circulation of approximately 100,000.
Frankfurt's first radio station was the Südwestdeutsche Rundfunkdienst AG (Southwest German Broadcast Service), founded in 1924. Its successor service is the public broadcasterHessischer Rundfunk (Hessian Broadcast Service). It is located at the "Funkhaus am Dornbusch" in theDornbusch district and is one of the most important radio and televisionbroadcasters in Hesse, with additional studios inKassel,Darmstadt andFulda.
Other radio broadcasters include Main FM and Radio X.
From August 1945 to October 2004, theAmerican Forces Network (AFN) had broadcast from Frankfurt (AFN Frankfurt). Due to troop reductions the AFN's location has been closed with AFN now broadcasting fromMannheim.
Frankfurt is home to the German office ofReuters, a globalnews agency.Associated Press and US-based international news agency Feature Story News have bureaux in Frankfurt.
Frankfurt is home to several professional sports teams. Some of them have won German Championships. E.g. theSkyliners Frankfurt won theGerman Basketball Championship in 2004 and theGerman Cup in 2000. Women's side1. FFC Frankfurt (merged with Eintracht Frankfurt in 2020) are Germany's record title-holders;Eintracht Frankfurt are one-time German champions, five-times winners of theDFB-Pokal, and winners of theUEFA Cup in 1980 and theEuropa League in 2022.Frankfurt hosts the following sports teams or clubs:
Frankfurt is host to theclassic cycle raceEschborn-Frankfurt City Loop (known asRund um den Henninger-Turm from 1961 to 2008). The city hosts also the annualFrankfurt Marathon and theIronman Germany. In addition to the former, it is one of 13 global host locations to the J.P. Morgan Corporate Challenge, Germany's biggest corporate sports event. Rhein-Main Eissport Club forms the base of the Germanbandy community.
^Dovid Solomon Ganz,Tzemach David (part 2), Warsaw 1859, p. 13b (Hebrew); Polish name of book:Cemahc Dawid; cf. J.M. Wallace-Hadrill,Fredegar and the History of France, University of Manchester, n.d. pp. 536–538.
^Rolf Grosse (2014).Du royaume franc aux origines de la France et de l'Allemagne 800–1214. Presses Universitaires du Septentrion. p. 47.
^Mohr, Albert Richard (1967). "Abel Seyler und seine Verdienste um das Frankfurter Theaterleben".Frankfurter Theater von der Wandertruppe zum Komödienhaus: ein Beitrag zur Theatergeschichte des 18. Jahrhunderts. Frankfurt am Main: Kramer. pp. 66–81.
^"French march into Germany".The Times. 7 April 1920. p. 10. "The French commander issued a notice to the public informing them that the occupation was consequent upon the German advance in the Ruhr contrary to the Peace Treaty."
^ab"Jüdische Geschichte".frankfurt-tourismus.de.Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved17 September 2022.
^Megargee, Geoffrey P.; Overmans, Rüdiger; Vogt, Wolfgang (2022).The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos 1933–1945. Volume IV. Indiana University Press, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. p. 129.ISBN978-0-253-06089-1.
^Stanton, Shelby (2006).World War II Order of Battle: An Encyclopedic Reference to U.S. Army Ground Forces from Battalion through Division, 1939–1946 (2nd ed.). Stackpole Books. pp. 57, 84.ISBN9780811701570.
^Goitein, S.D.A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, Vol. I – Economic Foundations. University of California Press, 2000, p. 5
^Angela Ling Huang; Carsten Jahnke, eds. (2014).Textiles and the Medieval Economy: Production, Trade, and Consumption of Textiles, 8th–16th Centuries. Oxbow Books. p. 217.ISBN9781782976509.
Kramer, Waldemar (Hrsg.):Frankfurt Chronik. Verlag Waldemar Kramer, Frankfurt am Main 1987 (3. Auflage),ISBN3-7829-0321-8.
Lothar Gall (Hrsg.):FFM 1200. Traditionen und Perspektiven einer Stadt. Jan Thorbecke Verlag, Sigmaringen 1994,ISBN3-7995-1203-9 (Katalog zur 1200-Jahrfeier 1994 mit wiss. Aufsätzen).
Mack, Ernst:Von der Steinzeit zur Stauferstadt. Die frühe Geschichte von Frankfurt am Main. Verlag Josef Knecht, Frankfurt am Main 1994,ISBN3-7820-0685-2.
Architecture
Schohmann, Heinz:Frankfurt am Main und Umgebung. Von der Pfalzsiedlung zum Bankenzentrum. Dumont Kunstreiseführer. Dumont, Köln 2003,ISBN3-7701-6305-2. (mit Schwerpunkt Architektur).
Bodenbach, Christoph (Hrsg.):Neue Architektur in Frankfurt am Main. Junius Verlag, Hamburg 2008,ISBN978-3-88506-583-8.
Sturm, Philipp, Schmal, Peter Cachola:Hochhausstadt Frankfurt. Bauten und Visionen seit 1945. Prestel, München 2014,ISBN978-3-7913-5363-0.
Others
Setzepfandt, Christian:Geheimnisvolles Frankfurt am Main. Wartberg, Gudensberg-Gleichen 2003,ISBN3-8313-1347-4.
Mosebach, Martin:Mein Frankfurt. Mit Photographien von Barbara Klemm. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2002,ISBN3-458-34571-X. (Insel-Taschenbuch. Bd 2871)
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