Those parts of theVogtland lying inSaxony (largest city:Plauen) are sometimes regarded as Franconian as well, because theVogtlandian dialects are mostly East Franconian. The inhabitants of Saxon Vogtland, however, mostly do not consider themselves Franconian. On the other hand, the inhabitants of theHessian-speaking parts ofLower Franconia west of theSpessart (largest city:Aschaffenburg) do consider themselves Franconian, although not speaking the dialect. Heilbronn-Franconia's largest city ofHeilbronn and its surrounding areas areSouth Franconian-speaking, and therefore only sometimes regarded as Franconian. InHesse, the east of theFulda District is Franconian-speaking, and parts of theOden Forest District are sometimes regarded as Franconian for historical reasons, but a Franconian identity did not develop there.
The German wordFranken—Franconians—also refers to theethnic group, which is mainly to be found in this region. They are to be distinguished from theGermanicpeople of theFranks, and historically formed their easternmost settlement area. The origins of Franconia lie in the settlement of the Franks from the 6th century in the area probably populated until then mainly by theElbe Germanic people in theMain River area, known from the 9th century asEast Francia (Francia Orientalis).[2] In theMiddle Ages the region formed much of the eastern part of theDuchy of Franconia and, from 1500, theFranconian Circle.[3] The restructuring of the south German states byNapoleon, after the demise of theHoly Roman Empire, saw most of Franconia awarded to Bavaria.[4]
The German name for Franconia,Franken, comes from thedative plural form ofFranke, a member of the Germanic people known as theFranks.[5] Thename of the Franks in turn derives from a word meaning "daring, bold", cognate with oldNorwegianfrakkr, "quick, bold".[6] Franks from theMiddle andLower Rhine gradually gained control of (and so gave their name to) what is now Franconia during the 6th to 8th centuries.[7] English distinguishes betweenFranks (the early medieval Germanic people) andFranconians in reference to the high medievalstem duchy, followingMiddle Latin use ofFrancia forFrance vs.Franconia for the German duchy. In German the nameFranken is equally used for both, while the French are calledFranzosen, after Old Frenchfrançois, from Latinfranciscus, fromLate LatinFrancus, fromFrank, the Germanic people.
The Franconian lands lie principally in Bavaria, north and south of the sinuousRiver Main which, together with the left (southern)Regnitz tributary, including itsRednitz andPegnitz headstreams, drains most of Franconia. Other large rivers include the upperWerra in Thuringia and theTauber, as well as the upperJagst andKocher streams in the west, both right tributaries of theNeckar. In southern Middle Franconia, theAltmühl flows towards theDanube; theRhine–Main–Danube Canal crosses theEuropean Watershed. The man-madeFranconian Lake District has become a popular destination for day-trippers and tourists.
The present-day Upper, Lower and Middle Franconian administrative districts (in blue), with adjacent East Franconian language areas in Thuringia (tan) and in Baden-Württemberg (yellow)
The two largest cities of Franconia areNuremberg andFürth. Though located on the southeastern periphery of the area, the Nuremberg metropolitan area is often identified as the economic and cultural centre of Franconia. Further cities in Bavarian Franconia includeWürzburg,Erlangen,Bayreuth,Bamberg,Aschaffenburg,Schweinfurt,Hof,Coburg,Ansbach andSchwabach. The major (East) Franconian towns in Baden-Württemberg areSchwäbisch Hall on the Kocher — theimperial city declared itself "Swabian" in 1442 — andCrailsheim on the Jagst river. The main towns in Thuringia areSuhl andMeiningen.
Rothenburg is one of the best known towns in Franconia.
TheFranconian Rake may be used as an indicator of whether a place is part of Franconia. Here: the vestry of Meiningen's municipal church in South Thuringia. The Franconian Rake may be seen on the left.
Franconia may be distinguished from the regions that surround it by its peculiar historical factors and its cultural and especially linguistic characteristics, but it is not a political entity with a fixed or tightly defined area. As a result, it is debated whether some areas belong to Franconia or not. Pointers to a more precise definition of Franconia's boundaries include: the territories covered by the formerDuchy of Franconia and formerFranconian Circle,[8] the range of theEast Franconian dialect group, the common culture and history of the region and the use of theFranconian Rake on coats of arms, flags and seals. However, a sense of popular consciousness of being Franconian is only detectable from the 19th century onwards, which is why the circumstances of the emergence of a Frankish identity are disputed.[9] Franconia has many cultural peculiarities which have been adopted from other regions and further developed.[9]
In individual cases the membership of some areas is disputed. These include theBavarian language area of Alt-Eichstätt[9] and the Hessian-speaking[10] region aroundAschaffenburg, which was never part of the Franconian Imperial Circle. The affiliation of the city ofHeilbronn, whose inhabitants do not call themselves Franks,[11] is also controversial. Moreover, the sense of belonging to Franconia in the Frankish-speaking areas ofUpper Palatinate, South Thuringia[12] and Hesse is sometimes less marked.
The Bavarian provinces of Upper, Middle and Lower FranconiaThe region of Heilbronn-Franconia in Baden-Württemberg
The region of Franconia is divided among the states of Hesse, Thuringia, Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg. The largest part of Franconia, both by population and area, belongs to the Free State of Bavaria and is divided into the three administrative regions (Regierungsbezirke) ofMiddle Franconia (capital:Ansbach),Upper Franconia (capital:Bayreuth) andLower Franconia (capital:Würzburg). The name of these regions, as in the case ofUpper andLower Bavaria, refers to their situation with respect to the riverMain. Thus Upper Franconia lies on the upper reaches of the river, Lower Franconia on its lower reaches and Middle Franconia lies in between, although the Main itself does not flow through Middle Franconia. Where the boundaries of these three provinces meet (the 'tripoint') is theDreifrankenstein ("Three Franconias Rock").[13]Small parts of Franconia also belong to the Bavarian regions ofUpper Palatinate andUpper Bavaria.
The two most important rivers of the region are theMain and its primary tributary, theRegnitz. The tributaries of these two rivers in Franconia are theTauber,Pegnitz,Rednitz andFranconian Saale. Other major rivers in the region are theJagst andKocher in Hohenlohe-Franconia, which empty into theNeckar north of Heilbronn in Baden-Württemberg, theAltmühl and theWörnitz in Middle Franconia, both tributaries of theDanube, and the upper and middle reaches of theWerra, the right-hand headstream of theWeser. In the northeast of Upper Franconia rise two left-hand tributaries of theElbe: theSaxon Saale and theEger.
TheMain-Danube Canal connects the Main and Danube across Franconia, running from Bamberg via Nuremberg toKelheim. It thus complements the Rhine, Main and Danube, helping to ensure a continuous navigable waterway between theNorth Sea and theBlack Sea. In Franconia, there are only a few, often very small, naturallakes. This is due to fact that most natural lakes in Germany areglacial orvolcanic in origin, and Franconia escaped both influences in recent earth history. Among the largest waterbodies arereservoirs, which are mostly used as water reserves for the relatively dry landscapes of Franconia. These include the waters of theFranconian Lake District, which was established in the 1970s and is also a tourist attraction. The heart of these lakes is theGroßer Brombachsee, which has an area of 8.7 km2 and is thus the largest waterbody in Franconia by surface area.
In addition to the hill and mountain ranges, there are also several very level areas, including theMiddle Franconian Basin and theHohenlohe Plain. In the south of Franconia are smaller parts of the flatNördlinger Ries, one of the best preserved impact craters on earth.
Franconia's flora is dominated by deciduous and coniferous forests. Natural forests in Franconia occur mainly in the ranges of the Spessart, Franconian Forest, Odenwald and Steigerwald. The NurembergReichswald is another greatforest, located within the metropolitan region of Nuremberg. Other large areas of forest in the region are theMönchswald, theReichsforst in the Fichtel Mountains and theSelb Forest. In the river valleys along the Main and Tauber, the countryside was developed for viticulture. In Spessart there are great oak forests. Also widespread arecalcareous grasslands, extensively usedpastures on veryoligotrophic, poor sites. In particular, the southernFranconian Jura, with theAltmühl Valley, is characterized by poor grassland of this type. Many of these places have been designated as aprotected areas.
Franconia has several regions with sandy habitats that are unique for south Germany and are protected as the so-called Sand Belt of Franconia orSandachse Franken.[15] When theAltmühlsee reservoir was built, a bird island was created and designated as a nature reserve where a variety of birds nest. Another important reserve is theBlack Moor in theRhön, which is one of the most important bog areas in Central Europe.[16] A well known reserve is theLuisenburg Rock Labyrinth atWunsiedel, afelsenmeer ofgranite blocks up to several metres across. The establishment of the first Franconiannational park in the Steigerwald caused controversy and its designation was rejected in July 2011 by theBavarian government.[17] The reason was the negative attitude of local population. Conservationists are now demanding protection for parts of the Steigerwald by nominating it for a World Heritage Site.[17] There are severalnature parks in Franconia, including theAltmühl Valley Nature Park, which, since 1969, has been one of the largest in Germany.[18]
Like large parts of Germany, Franconia only has a few large species of wild animal. Forest dwellers include various species ofmarten,fallow deer,red deer,roe deer,wild boar andfox. In natural areas such as the Fichtel mountains there are populations oflynx andcapercaillie,[23] andbeaver andotter have grown in numbers. There are occasional sightings of animals that had long been extinct in Central Europe, for example, thewolf.[24]
Only in the extreme northeast of Franconia and in the Spessart are thereVariscanoutcrops of the crystallinebasement, which were uplifted from below the surface when theAlps exerted a northwards-oriented pressure. These are rocks of pre-Permian vintage, which were folded during various stages ofVariscan orogeny in theLate Palaeozoic - before about 380 to 300 million years ago - and, in places, weremetamorphosed under high pressure and temperature or were crystallized by ascendingmagma in theEarth's crust.[25] Rocks which were unchanged or only lightly metamorphosed, because they had been deformed at shallow crustal depths, include theLower Carboniferous shale and greywacke of Franconian Forest. The Fichtel mountains, the Münchberg Plateau and the Spessart, by contrast, have more metamorphic rocks (phyllite,schist,amphibolite,gneiss). The Fichtel mountains are also characterized by largegranite bodies, called post-kinematicplutons which, in the late phase of Variscan orogeny, intruded into the metamorphic rocks. In most cases these are S-type granites whose melting was caused by heated-up sedimentary rocks sunk deep into the Earth's crust.[26] While the Fichtel and Franconian Forest can be assigned to the Saxo-Thuringian Zone of Central European Variscan orogeny, the Spessart belongs to the Central German Crystalline Zone.[25] The Münchberg mass is variously attributed to the Saxo-Thuringian or Moldanubian Zones.[27]
A substantially larger part of the shallow subsurface in Franconia comprisesMesozoic, unmetamorphosed, unfolded rocks of theSouth German Scarplands.[28] The regional geological element of the South German Scarplands is the Franconian Platform (Süddeutsche Großscholle).[29] At the so-calledFranconian Line, a significantfault line, the Saxo-Thuringian-Moldanubian basement was uplifted in places up to 2000 m above the Franconian Platform.[30] The western two-thirds of Franconia is dominated by theTriassic with itssandstones,siltstones andclaystones (so-calledsiliciclastics) of thebunter sandstone; thelimestones andmarls of theMuschelkalk and the mixed, but predominantly siliciclastic, sedimentary rocks of theKeuper. In theRhön, the Triassic rocks are overlain and intruded byvolcanic rock (basalts,basanites,phonolites andtrachytes) of theTertiary. The eastern third of Franconia is dominated by theJurassic rocks of theFranconian Jura, with the dark shales of theBlack Jura, the shales and ferruginous sandstones of theBrown Jura and, the weathering-resistant limestones anddolomitic rocks of theWhite Jura, which stand out from the landscape and form the actual ridge of the Franconian Jura itself.[28] In the Jura, mostly siliciclastic sedimentary rocks formed in theCretaceous have survived.
The Mesozoic sediments have been deposited in largescale basin areas. During the Triassic, the Franconian part of these depressions was often part of the mainland, in the Jurassic it was covered for most of the time by amarginal sea of the westernTethys Ocean. At the time when the limestones and dolomites of the White Jura were being deposited, this sea was divided into sponge reefs and intervening lagoons. The reef bodies and the fine-grained lagoon limestones and marls are the material from which the majority of the Franconian Jura is composed today.[31] Following a drop in the sea level towards the end of the Upper Jurassic, larger areas also became part of the mainland at the beginning of the subsequent Cretaceous period. During the Upper Cretaceous, the sea advanced again up to the area of the Franconian Jura. At the end of the Cretaceous, the sea then retreated again from the region.[31] In addition, large parts of South and Central Germany experienced a general uplift -or in areas where the basement had broken through a substantial uplift - the course of formation of the Alps during the Tertiary. Since then, Franconia has been mainly influenced byerosion andweathering (especially in the Jura in the form ofkarst), which has ultimately led to formation of today's landscapes.
Skull and forward cervical spine ofPlateosaurus engelhardti, probably the replica of a skeleton fromEllingenThe so-called London Exemplar ofArchaeopteryx (here a replica) comes from theLangenaltheim Quarry, west of Solnhofen.
The oldestmacrofossils in Franconia, which are also the oldest in Bavaria, arearchaeocyatha,sponge-like, goblet-shaped marine organisms, which were discovered in 2013 in a limestone block ofLate Lower Cambrian age, about 520 million years old. The block comes from the vicinitySchwarzenbach am Wald from the so-called Heinersreuth Block Conglomerate (Heinersreuther Blockkonglomerat), aLower Carboniferouswildflysch. However, the aforementioned archaeocyathids are not three-dimensional fossils, but two-dimensionalthin sections. These thin sections had already been prepared and investigated in the 1970s but the archaeocyathids among them were apparently overlooked at that time.[32]
Better known and more highly respected fossil finds in Franconia come from the unfolded sedimentary rocks of the Triassic and Jurassic. Thebunter sandstone, however, only has a relatively small number of preserved whole fossils. Much more commonly, it containstrace fossils, especially thetetrapod footprints ofChirotherium. Thetype locality for theseanimal tracks isHildburghausen in the Thuringian part of Franconia, where it occurs in the so-called Thuringian Chirotherium Sandstone (Thüringer Chirotheriensandstein, main Middle Bunter Sandstone).[33]Chirotherium is also found in the Bavarian and Württemberg parts of Franconia. Sites includeAura near Bad Kissingen,Karbach,Gambach andKülsheim.[34] There the deposits are somewhat younger (Upper Bunter Sandstone), and the correspondingstratigraphic interval is called the Franconian Chirotherium Beds (Fränkische Chirotherienschichten).[34] Among the less significant body fossil records of vertebrates are theprocolophonidAnomoiodon liliensterni fromReurieth in the Thuringian part of Franconia[35] andKoiloskiosaurus coburgiensis fromMittelberg near Coburg,[36] both from the Thuringian Chirotherium Sandstone, and theTemnospondyleMastodonsaurus ingens (possibly identical with the mastodonsaurus,Heptasaurus cappelensis) from theUpper Bunter at Gambach.[37][38]
As early as the first decade of the 19th centuryGeorge, Count of Münster began systematic fossil gathering and digs and in the UpperMuschelkalk atBayreuth. For example, theOschenberg hill nearLaineck became the type locality of two relatively well-known marine reptiles of the Triassic period, later found in other parts of Central Europe: the "flat tooth lizard",Placodus[39] and the "false lizard",Nothosaurus.[40]
In Franconia's middleKeuper (theFeuerletten) is one of the best known and most common species of dinosaurs of Central Europe:Plateosaurus engelhardti, an early representative of thesauropodomorpha. Its type locality is located atHeroldsberg south of Nuremberg. When the remains ofPlateosaurus were first discovered there in 1834, it was the first discovery of a dinosaur on German soil, and this occurred even before the name "dinosauria" was coined. Another importantPlateosaurus find in Franconia was made atEllingen.[41]
Far more famous thanPlateosaurus,Placodus andNothosaurus is theArchaeopteryx, probably the first bird geologically. It was discovered in the southern Franconian Jura,inter alia at the famous fossil site of Solnhofen in the Solnhofen Platform Limestone (Solnhofener Plattenkalk, (Solnhofen-Formation, earlyTithonian, Upper Jurassic). In addition toArchaeopteryx, in the very fine-grained, laminated lagoon limestones are the pterosaurPterodactylus and variousbony fishes as well as numerous extremely detailed examples of invertebrates e.g.feather stars anddragonflies.Eichstätt is the other "big" and similarly famous fossil locality in the Solnhofen Formation, situated on the southern edge of the Jura inUpper Bavaria. Here, as well asArchaeopteryx, the theropod dinosaurs,Compsognathus andJuravenator, were found.
An inglorious episode in the history of paleontology took place in Franconia: fake fossils, known asBeringer's Lying Stones, were acquired in the 1720s by Würzburg doctor and naturalist,Johann Beringer, for a lot of money and then described in amonograph, along with genuine fossils from the Würzburg area. However, it is not entirely clear whether the Beringer forgeries were actually planted or whether he himself was responsible for the fraud.[42]
Franconia has ahumidcool temperate transitional climate, which is neither very continental nor very maritime. The average monthly temperatures vary depending on the area between about -1 to -2 °C in January and 17 to 19 °C in August, but may reach a peak of about 35 °C for a few days in the summer, especially in the large cities. The climate of Franconia is sunny and relatively warm. For part of the summer, for example, Lower Franconia is one of the sunniest areas in Germany. Daily temperatures in the Bavarian part of Franconia are an average of 0.1 °C higher than the average for Bavaria as a whole.[43] Relatively less rain falls in Franconia, and likewise in the rest of North Bavaria rain than is usual for its geographic location; even summer storms are often less powerful than in other areas of South Germany.[44] In southern Bavaria about 2,000 mm of precipitation falls annually and almost three times as much as in parts of Franconia (about 500–900 mm) in the rain shadow of the Spessart, Rhön and Odenwald.[45]
Franconia, as part of Germany, has a highquality of life. In theWorldwide Quality of Living Survey byMercer in 2010, the city of Nuremberg was one of the top 25 cities in the world in terms of quality of life and came sixth in Germany.[46] In environmental ranking Nuremberg came thirteenth in the world and was the best German city[46] In a survey by the German magazine,Focus, on quality of life in 2014, the districts of Eichstätt and Fürth were among the top positions in the table.[47] In theGlücksatlas byDeutsche Post Franconia achieved some of the highest scores,[48] but the region slipped in 2013 to 13th place out of 19.[49]
Franconia is named after theFranks, aGermanic tribe who conquered most of Western Europe by the middle of the 8th century. Despite its name, Franconia is not the homeland of the Franks, but rather owes its name to being partially settled by Franks from the Rhineland during the 7th century following the defeat of theAlamanni andThuringians who had dominated the region earlier.[50]
At the beginning of the 10th century aDuchy of Franconia (German:Herzogtum Franken) was established withinEast Francia, which comprised modernHesse,Palatinate, parts ofBaden-Württemberg and most of today's Franconia. After the dissolution of the so-calledStem duchy of Franconia, theHoly Roman Emperors created theFranconian Circle (GermanFränkischer Reichskreis) in 1500 to embrace the principalities that grew out of the eastern half of the former duchy. The territory of the Franconian Circle roughly corresponds with modern Franconia. The title ofDuke ofFranconia was claimed by theWürzburg bishops until 1803 and by the kings ofBavaria until 1918.[51] Examples of Franconian cities founded by Frankish noblemen areWürzburg, first mentioned in the 7th century,Ansbach, first mentioned in 748, andWeissenburg, founded in the 7th century.[52]
Fossil finds show that the region was already settled byHomo erectus in the middleIce Age about 600,000 years ago. Probably the oldest human remains in the Bavarian part of Franconia were found in the cave ruins of Hunas atPommelsbrunn in the county ofNuremberg Land.[53] In the lateBronze Age, the region was probably only sparsely inhabited, as fewnoble metals occur here and the soils are only moderately fertile.[54] In the subsequentIron Age (from about 800 B.C.) theCelts became the first nation to be discernible in the region. In northern Franconia they built a chain ofhill forts as a line of defence against theGermani advancing from the north. On theStaffelberg they built a powerful settlement, to whichPtolemy gave the nameoppidum Menosgada,[55] and on theGleichberge is the largest survivingoppidum inCentral Germany, theSteinsburg. With the increased expansion ofRome in the first century B.C. and the simultaneous advance of theElbe Germanic tribes from the north, the Celtic culture began to fall into decline. The southern parts of present-day Franconia soon fell under Roman control; however, most of the region remained inFree Germania. Initially, Rome tried to extend its direct influence far to the northeast; in the longer term, however, the Germanic-Roman frontier formed further southwest.[56]
A 1990 replica of thePorta decumana of theBiriciana. View over the camp ring road
Under the emperors,Domitian (81–96),Trajan (98–117) andHadrian (117–138), theRhaetian Limes was built as a border facing the Germanic tribes to the north. This defensive line ran through the south of Franconia and described an arc across the region whose northernmost point lay at present-dayGunzenhausen. To protect it, the Romans built several forts likeBiriciana atWeißenburg, but by the mid-third century, the border could no longer be maintained and by 250 A.D. theAlemanni occupied the areas up to theDanube. Fortified settlements such as theGelbe Bürg atDittenheim controlled the new areas.[57] More such Gau forts have been detected north of the former Limes as well. Which tribe their occupants belonged to is unknown in most cases. However, it is likely that it was mainly Alemanni andJuthungi, especially in the south.[58]
By contrast, it was theBurgundians who settled on the Lower and Middle Main.[58] Many of these hill forts appear to have been destroyed, however, no later than 500 A.D. The reasons are not entirely clear, but it could have been as a result of invasions by theHuns which thus triggered theGreat Migration. In many cases, however, it was probably conquest by theFranks that spelt the end of these hilltop settlements.[57]
Franconian warrior's grave goods from the early mediaeval burial site ofWestheimDuchy of Franconia around 800
With their victories over the heartlands of the Alamanni andThuringians in the 6th century, the present region of Franconia also fell to theFranks.[2] After thedivision of the Frankish Empire, East Francia (Francia orientialis) was formed from the territories of the dioceses ofMainz,Worms,Würzburg andSpeyer. Later, the diocese of Bamberg was added.[2] In the 7th century, theSlavs started to populate the northeastern parts of the region from the east, because the area of today's Upper Franconia was very sparsely populated (Bavaria Slavica).[59] However, in the 10th and 11th centuries, they largely gave up their own language and cultural tradition. The majority of the population of Franconia waspagan well into theEarly Middle Ages, The first people to spread the Christian faith strongly were wanderingIrishAnglo-Saxonmonks in the early 7th century.Saint Kilian, who together with his companions,Saint Colman andSaint Totnan are considered to be theapostles to the Franks, suffering martyrdom in Würzburg in the late 7th century, probably did not encounter any pagans in the ducal court. It was probablySaint Boniface who carried the Christian mission deep into the heart of the ordinary population of Franconia.[60]
In the mid-9th century thetribal Duchy of Franconia emerged, one of the five tribal orstem duchies ofEast Francia.[61] The territory of the stem duchy was far bigger than modern Franconia and covered the whole of present-day Hesse, northern Baden-Württemberg, southern Thuringia, large parts of Rhineland-Palatinate and parts of the Franconian provinces in Bavaria. It extended as far west asSpeyer,Mainz, andWorms (west of theRhine) and even includedFrankfurt ("ford of the Franks"). In the early 10th century, theBabenbergs andConradines fought for power in Franconia. Ultimately this discord led to theBabenberg Feud which was fuelled and controlled by the crown. The outcome of this feud meant the loss of power for the Babenbergs, but indirectly resulted in the Conradines winning the crown of East Francia. Sometime around 906,Conrad succeeded in establishing his ducal hegemony over Franconia, but when the direct Carolingian male line failed in 911, Conrad was acclaimedKing of the Germans, largely because of his weak position in his own duchy. Franconia, likeAlamannia was fairly fragmented and the duke's position was often disputed between the chief families. Conrad had granted Franconia to his brotherEberhard on his succession, but when Eberhard rebelled againstOtto I in 938, he was deposed from his duchy, which disintegrated in 939 on Eberhard's death into West orRhenish Franconia (Francia Rhenensis), and East Franconia (Francia Orientalis)[note 1] and was directly subordinated to the Reich. Only after that was the formerFrancia Orientalis considered to be under the sphere of the bishops of Würzburg as the true Franconia, its territory gradually shrinking to its present area.[2]
Meanwhile, the inhabitants of parts of present-day Upper and Middle Franconia, who were not under the control of Würzburg, probably also considered themselves to be Franks at that time, and certainly their dialect distinguished them from the inhabitants of Bavaria andSwabia.[62]
Unlike the other stem duchies, Franconia became the homeland and power base of East Frankish and German kings after theOttonians died out in 1024.[61] As a result, in theHigh Middle Ages, the region did not become a strong regional force such as those which formed in Saxony, Bavaria andSwabia. In 1007, the later canonized Henry II founded theBishopric of Bamberg and endowed it with rich estates.[63] Bamberg became a favouredPfalz and an important centre of the Empire.[63] Because parts of the Bishopric of Würzburg also fell to Bamberg, Würzburg was enfeoffed several royal estates by King Henry II by way of compensation.[64]
Franconia around 1200
From the 12th centuryNuremberg Castle was the seat of theBurgraviate of Nuremberg. The burgraviate was ruled from about 1190 by the Zollerns, the Franconian line of the laterHouse of Hohenzollern, which provided the German emperors of the 19th and 20th century.[65] Under the Hohenstaufen kings,Conrad III andFrederick Barbarossa, Franconia became the centre of power in the Empire. During the time when there was no emperor, theInterregnum (1254–1273), someterritorial princes became ever more powerful. After the Interregnum, however, the rulers succeeded in re-establishing a stronger royal lordship in Franconia.[66] Franconia soon played an important role again for the monarchy at the time ofRudolf of Habsburg; the itineraries of his successors showing their preference for the Rhine-Main region. In 1376 theSwabian League of Cities was founded and was joined later by several Franconianimperial cities.[67] During the 13th century theTeutonic Order was formed, taking over its first possession in Franconia in 1209, the Bailiwick of Franconia. The foundation of many schools and hospitals and the construction of numerous churches and castles in this area goes back to the work of this Roman Catholic military order. The residence place of the bailiwick was atEllingen until 1789 when it was transferred to today'sBad Mergentheim.[68] Other orders such as theKnights Templar could not gain a foothold in Franconia; theOrder of St. John worked in the Bishopric of Würzburg and had short term commands.[69]
On 2 July 1500 during the reign of EmperorMaximilian I, as part of theImperial Reform Movement, the Empire was divided intoImperial Circles. This led in 1512 to the formation of theFranconian Circle.[3] Seen from a modern perspective, the Franconian Circle may be viewed as an important basis for the sense of a common Franconian identity that exists today.[8] The Franconian Circle also shaped the geographical limits of the present-day Franconia.[62] In the late Middle Ages and Early Modern Period, the Imperial Circle was severely affected byKleinstaaterei, the patchwork of tiny states in this region of Germany. As during the late Middle Ages, the bishops of Würzburg used the nominal title of Duke of Franconia during the time of the Imperial Circle.[70] In 1559, the Franconian Circle was given jurisdiction over coinage (Münzaufsicht) and, in 1572, was the only Circle to issue its own police ordinance.[71][72]
Members of the Franconian Circle included the imperial cities, the prince-bishoprics, the Bailiwick of Franconia of the Teutonic Order and several counties. TheImperial Knights with their tiny territories, of which there was a particularly large number in Franconia, were outside the Circle assembly and, until 1806, formed theFranconian Knights Circle (Fränkischer Ritterkreis) consisting of sixKnights' Cantons. Because the extent of Franconia, already referred to above, is disputed, there were many areas that might be counted as part of Franconia today, that lay outside the Franconian Circle. For example, the area of Aschaffenburg belonged toElectoral Mainz and was a part of theElectoral Rhenish Circle, the area of Coburg belonged to theUpper Saxon Circle and the Heilbronn area to theSwabian Circle. In the 16th century, theCollege of Franconian Counts was founded to represent the interests of thecounts in Franconia.[73]
Franconia played an important role in the spread of theReformation initiated byMartin Luther,[74] Nuremberg being one of the places where theLuther Bible was printed.[75] The majority of other Franconian imperial cities and imperial knights embraced the new confession.[76] In the course of theCounter-Reformation several regions of Franconia returned to Catholicism, however, and there was also an increase inwitch trials.[77] In addition to Lutheranism, theradical reformatorybaptist movement spread early on across the Franconian area. Important Baptist centres wereKönigsberg and Nuremberg.[78][79]
Extent of the uprisings in the Peasants' War
In 1525, the burden of heavy taxation and socage combined with new, liberal ideas that chimed withthe Reformation movement, unleashed theGerman Peasants' War. The Würzburg area was particularly hard hit with numerous castles and monasteries being burned down.[80] In the end, however, the uprisings were suppressed and for centuries the lowest strata of society were excluded from all political activity.
From 1552, MargraveAlbert Alcibiades attempted to break the supremacy of the mighty imperial city of Nuremberg and to secularise the ecclesial estates in theSecond Margrave War,[81] to create a duchy over which he would rule.[82] Large areas of Franconia were eventually devastated in the fighting until KingFerdinand I together with several dukes and princes decided to overthrow Albert.
In 1608, the reformed princes merged into a so-calledUnion within the Empire. In Franconia, the margraves of Ansbach and Bayreuth as well as the imperial cities were part of this alliance. The Catholic side responded in 1609 with a counter-alliance, theLeague. The conflicts between the two camps ultimately resulted in theThirty Years' War, which was the greatest strain on the cohesion of the Franconian Circle[83] Initially, Franconia was not a theatre of war, although marauding armies repeatedly crossed its territory. However, in 1631, Swedish troops underGustavus Adolphus advanced into Franconia and established a large encampment in summer 1632 around Nuremberg.[84] However, the Swedes lost theBattle of the Alte Veste againstWallenstein's troops and eventually withdrew. Franconia was one of the poorest regions in the Empire and lost its imperial political significance.[85] During the course of the war, about half the local population lost their lives. To compensate for these losses about 150,000 displaced Protestants settled in Protestant areas, includingAustrianexiles.[86]
The Franconian Imperial Circle in 1789
Franconia never developed into a unified territorial state, because the patchwork quilt of small states (Kleinstaaterei) survived the Middle Ages and lasted until the 18th century.[87] As a result, the Franconian Circle had the important task of preserving peace, preventing abuses and to repairing war damage and had a regulatory role in the region until the end of the Holy Roman Empire. Until theWar of the Spanish Succession, the Circle had become an almost independent organization and joined theGrand Alliance againstLouis XIV as an almost sovereign state. The Circle also developed early forms of awelfare state.[87] It also played a major role in the control of disease during the 16th and 17th centuries.[88] AfterCharles Alexander abdicated in 1792, the former margraviates of Ansbach and Bayreuth were annexed byPrussia.[89][90]Karl August Freiherr von Hardenberg was appointed as governor of these areas by Prussia.[90]
Most of modern-day Franconia became part of Bavaria in 1803 thanks to Bavaria's alliance withNapoleon. Culturally it is in many ways different from Bavaria proper ("Altbayern", Old Bavaria), however. The ancient name was resurrected in 1837 byLudwig I of Bavaria. During theNazi period, Bavaria was broken up into several differentGaue, includingFranconia andMain-Franconia.
In 1803, what was to become theKingdom of Bavaria was given large parts of Franconia through the enactment of theReichsdeputationshauptschluss under pressure fromNapoleon forsecularization andmediatisation.[91] In 1806, theAct of Confederation led to stronger ties between Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and other areas with France, whereupon the Holy Roman Empire including the Franconian Circle fell apart.[92][93] As a reward Bavaria was promised other estates, including the city of Nuremberg.[92] In the so-calledRittersturm of 1803, Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden seized the territories of the Imperial Knights and Franconian nobility, whose estates were often no bigger than a few parishes, even though theReichsdeputationshauptschluss had not authorised this.[70] In 1806 and 1810, Prussia had to release the territories of Ansbach and Bayreuth, which it had annexed in 1792, to Bavaria, whereby Prussia lost its supremacy in the region.[90]
In 1814, as a result of theCongress of Vienna, the territories of thePrincipality of Aschaffenburg andGrand Duchy of Würzburg went to the Kingdom of Bavaria. In order to merge thepatchwork quilt of small states in Franconia and Swabia into a greater Bavaria,Maximilian Joseph Montgelas reformed the political structure.[94][95] Out of this in January 1838 emerged the Franconian provinces with their present names of Middle, Upper and Lower Franconia.[96] Considerable resentment arose in parts of the Franconian territories over their new membership of Bavaria.[97] There were liberal demands for republican structures which erupted in therevolts of 1848 and 1849 and theGaibach Festival in 1832.[98][99] On the one hand the reconciliation policy of theWittelsbachs[97] and Montgelas' aforementioned policy of unification, and, on the other hand, the inclusion of Bavaria in theGerman Empire in 1871, which weakened her power Bavaria slightly, the conflict between Franconia and Bavaria eased considerably.
From 1836 to 1846, the Kingdom of Bavaria built theLudwig Canal from Bamberg to Kelheim, which was only abandoned in 1950.[100] However, the canal lost much of its importance shortly after the arrival of the railways. Between 1843 and 1854, theLudwig South-North Railway was established within Franconia, which ran fromLindau onLake Constance viaNuremberg,Bamberg andKulmbach toHof. The first locomotive to run on German soil steamed 1835 from Nuremberg to Fürth on 7 December 1835.
Destruction in Nuremberg in 1945 (Egidienplatz)Destruction in Heilbronn in 1945ThePellerhaus in Nuremberg was one of the most important buildings of theRenaissance period from 1605 until the destruction of its façade in 1945.
During theNazi era Nuremberg played a prominent role in the self-expression of theNational Socialists as the permanent seat of theNazi Party.[102]Gunzenhausen made its mark as one of the first towns in the Reich itself to exercise discrimination against the Jewish population. The first Hitler Monument in Germany was established there in April 1933. On 25 March 1934 the first anti-Jewishpogrom in Bavaria took place in Gunzenhausen. The attack brought the town negative press coverage worldwide.[103] On 15 September, aReichstag was specially convened in Nuremberg for the purpose of passing theNuremberg Laws, under which theantisemitic ideology of the Nazis became a legal basis for such actions.[104]
Like all parts of the German Reich, Franconia was badly affected byAlliedair raids. Nuremberg, as a major industrial centre and transportation hub, was hit particularly hard. Between 1940 and 1945 the city was the target of dozens of air raids. Many other places were also affected by air raids. For example, theair raid on 4 December 1944 on Heilbronn[105] and thebombing of Würzburg on 16 March 1945, in which both old towns were almost completely destroyed, was a disaster for both cities. By contrast, the old town of Bamberg was almost completely spared.[106] In order to protectcultural artefacts, thehistoric art bunker was built below Nuremberg Castle.[107] In the closing stages of theSecond World War, at the end of March and April 1945, Franconian towns and cities were captured by formations of theUS Army who advanced from the west after the failure of theBattle of the Bulge andOperation Nordwind. TheBattle of Nuremberg lasted five days and resulted in at least 901 deaths. TheBattle of Crailsheim lasted 16 days, theBattle of Würzburg seven and theBattle of Merkendorf three days.
Following theunconditional surrender on 8 May 1945, Bavarian Franconia became part of theAmerican zone of occupation; whilst South Thuringia, with the exception of smaller enclaves likeOstheim, became part of theSoviet zone and the Franconian parts of today's Baden-Württemberg also went to the American zone[108] The most important part of the Allied prosecution programme against leaders of the Nazi regime were theNuremberg Trials against leaders of the German Empire during the Nazi era, held from 20 November 1945 to 14 April 1949.[109] The Nuremberg Trials are considered a breakthrough for the principle that, for a core set of crimes, there is noimmunity from prosecution. For the first time, the representatives of asovereign state were held accountable for their actions. In autumn 1946, the Free State of Bavaria was reconstituted with the enactment of theBavarian Constitution.[110]
The state ofWürttemberg-Baden was founded on 19 September 1945.[111] On 25 April 1952 this state merged withBaden andWürttemberg-Hohenzollern (both from the formerFrench occupation zone) to create the present state of Baden-Württemberg.[112] On 1 December 1945 the state of Hesse was founded. Beginning in 1945,refugees and displaced persons from Eastern Europe were settled particularly in rural areas.[113] After 1945, Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg managed the transition from economies that were predominantlyagriculture to become leading industrial states in the so-calledWirtschaftswunder. In Lower and Upper Franconia, there was still the problem, however, of the zone along theInner German Border which was a long way from the markets for its agricultural produce, and was affected by migration and relatively high unemployment,[114] which is why these areas received special support from federal and state governments.
By contrast, the state of Thuringia was restored by theSoviets in 1945. On 7 October 1949 theGerman Democratic Republic, commonly known asEast Germany, was founded. In 1952 in the course of the1952 administrative reform in East Germany, the state of Thuringia was relieved of its function.[115] The Sovietoccupying forces exacted a high level of reparations (especially thedismantling of industrial facilities) which made the initial economic conditions in East Germany very difficult.[116] Along with the failed economic policies of the GDR, this led to a general frustration that fuelled theuprising of 17 June. There were protests in the Franconian territories too, for example in Schmalkalden.[117] The village ofMödlareuth became famous because, for 41 years, it was divided by theInner German Border and was nicknamed 'Little Berlin. AfterDie Wende, the fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 andreunification on 3 October 1990, made possible mainly by mass demonstrations in East Germany and local exodus of East Germans, the state of Thuringia was reformed with effect from 14 October 1990.[115]
The administrative reform in Bavaria in the Franconian county ofAnsbach
In the years from 1971 to 1980 an administrative reform was carried out in Bavaria with the aim of creating more efficient municipalities (Gemeinden) and counties (Landkreise). Against sometimes great protests by the population, the number of municipalities was reduced by a third and the number of counties by about a half. Among the changes was the transfer of the Middle Franconian county ofEichstätt toUpper Bavaria. On 18 May 2006, theBavarian Landtag approved the introduction ofFranconia Day (Tag der Franken) in the Franconian territories of the free state.[118]
A large portion of the roughly five million[1] inhabitants of Franconia consider themselves Franconians (Franken, in German homonymous with the name of the historicalFranks), a sub-ethnic group of theGerman people alongsideAlemanni,Swabians,Bavarians,Thuringians andSaxons. Such an ethnic identity is generally not shared by speakers of Central Franconian, Low Franconian, Rhenish Franconian or South Franconian, some of whom may identify as Rhine Franconians (Rheinfranken) or Moselle Franconians (Moselfranken).
With the exception ofSchwäbisch Hall, all cities in Franconia and all towns with a population of over 40,000 are within the Free State of Bavaria. By far the largest city in Franconia isNuremberg with more than 500,000 inhabitants. The other three major cities areFürth,Würzburg andErlangen. In Middle Franconia, in themetropolitan region of Nuremberg there is a densely populated urban area consisting of Nuremberg, Fürth, Erlangen andSchwabach with around 1.4 million inhabitants. Nuremberg is the fourteenth largest city in Germany and the second largest in Bavaria.[124]
The largest place in the Hessian part of Franconia isGersfeld with just 5,516 inhabitants.[127] The largest cities within Bavaria are Nuremberg (523,026), Fürth (131,433), Würzburg (127,810) and Erlangen (116,562).[124]
In theMiddle Ages Franconia, with its numerous towns, was separate and not part of other territories such as theDuchy of Bavaria.[128] In the late medieval period it was dominated by mainly smaller towns with a few hundred to a thousand inhabitants, whose size barely distinguished them from the villages. Many towns grew up along large rivers or were founded by the prince-bishops and nobility. Even theHohenstaufens operated in many towns, most of which later becameImperial Cities with a strong orientation towards Nuremberg.[128] The smallest town in Franconia is Thuringia'sUmmerstadt with 457 inhabitants.[129]
Distribution of the East Franconian dialects with transition zones
German is theofficial language and also thelingua franca. Numerous other languages are spoken that come from other language regions or the native countries of immigrants.[citation needed]
East Franconian German, the dialect spoken in Franconia, is entirely different from theAustro-Bavarian dialect continuum which is mainly to be found in the Upper Palatinate, Upper and Lower Bavaria, the greater part of Austria and some parts of Northern Italy. This is one of the reasons why hardly any Franconian would call himself a Bavarian. Even though there is no Franconian state, red and white are regarded as the state colours (Landesfarben) of Franconia (compared to blue and white for Bavaria).[130]
The proportion ofRoman Catholics andProtestants among the population of Franconia is roughly the same, but varies from region to region.[131] Large areas of Middle and Upper Franconia are mainly Protestant.[131]
Thedenominational orientation today still reflects the territorial structure of Franconia at the time of the Franconian Circle. For example, regions, that used to be under the care of the bishoprics of Bamberg, Würzburg and Eichstätt, are mainly Catholic today. On the other hand, all former territories of the imperial cities and the margraviates of Ansbach and Bayreuth have remained mainly Lutheran. The region around the city ofErlangen, which belonged to the Margraviate of Bayreuth, was a refuge for theHuguenots who fled there after theSt Bartholomew's Day massacre in France.[132]
The influx of immigrants from Eastern Europe has also seen the establishment of anOrthodox community in Franconia. Among Orthodox churches, theRomanian Orthodox Church has located the headquarters of its Metropolis of Germany, Central and Northern Europe in Nuremberg.[134]
Before theNazi era, Franconia was a region with significant Jewish communities, most of whom wereAshkenazi Jews.[135] The first Jewish communities appeared in Franconia in the 12th and 13th centuries and thus later than, for example, inRegensburg. In the Middle Ages, Franconia was a stronghold ofTorah studies. But Franconia also began to exclude the Jewish populations particularly early on. For example, there were two Jewish massacres – theRintfleisch massacres of 1298 and theArmleder Uprising of 1336-1338 – and in the 15th and 16th centuries, many cities exiled their Jewish populations, which is why many Jews settled in rural communities. Franconia also rose to early prominence in the discrimination against Jews during the Nazi era.[136] One of the first casualties of the organized Nazi persecution of Jews took place on 21 March inKünzelsau and on 25–26 March 1933 inCreglingen, where police andSA troops under the leadership ofStandartenführer Fritz Klein led so-called "weapons search operations".[137][138]
In 1818, about 65% of Bavarian Jews lived in the Bavarian part of Franconia;[139] today there are Jewish communities only in Bamberg, Bayreuth, Erlangen, Fürth, Hof, Nuremberg and Würzburg[140] as well as in Heilbronn in Baden-Württemberg.
Adherents of Islam continue to grow, especially in the larger cities, due to the influx ofgastarbeiters and otherimmigrants from Muslim countries. As a result, many "backyard mosques" (Hinterhofmoscheen) have sprung up, which are gradually being replaced by purpose-builtmosques.[citation needed]
One of the best known tourist attractions in Franconia is the town of Rothenburg ob der Tauber.Schloss Langenburg (Baden-Württemberg) lies on theCastle Road.
Thetourism industry stresses the romantic character of Franconia,[142][143] including the picturesque countryside and many historic buildings.[143]Franconian wine, the rich tradition of beer brewing and local culinary specialties, such asLebküchnerei orgingerbread baking, are also a draw.[143][144] TheRomantic Road links several tourist points in western Franconia.[145] TheCastle Road runs through the Franconian region with its numerous castles and other medieval structures.[citation needed]
The region is served byNuremberg Airport which provides flights to major German cities and many European destinations. The airport is the second-busiest airport in the state ofBavaria and9th busiest airport in Germany. However,Munich Airport andFrankfurt Airport are also frequently used by Franconia residents which both airports provides more domestic and international destinations.
^East Franconia should not be confused with the eastern division of the Frankish Empire,East Francia, which was also known asFrancia Orientalis in Latin. This refers to the much larger area which later became theGerman Kingdom and of which the whole of the Duchy of Franconia was a part.
^abBased on the combined populations of the provinces of Middle, Upper and Lower Franconia in Bavaria as well as the counties of South Thuringia and Tauber Franconia.
^abcdKarten zur Geschichte Bayerns: Jutta Schumann / Dieter J. Weiß, in:Edel und Frei. Franken im Mittelalter, ed. by Wolfgang Jahn / Jutta Schumann / Evamaria Brockhoff, Augsburg, 2004 (Veröffentlichungen zur Bayerischen Geschichte und Kultur 47/04), pp. 174–176, Cat. No. 51. SieheHaus der Bayerischen Geschichte[permanent dead link]
^abRudolf Endres: "Der Fränkische Reichskreis". In:Hefte zur Bayerischen Geschichte und Kultur 29, published by the Haus der Bayerischen Geschichte, Regensburg, 2003, p. 6, seeonline version (PDF).
^Manfred Treml: "Das Königreich Bayern (1806–1918)". In:Politische Geschichte Bayerns, published by the Haus der Bayerischen Geschichte as Issue 9 of theHefte zur Bayerischen Geschichte und Kultur, 1989, pp. 22–25, here: p. 22.
^EntryFranken in theDeutsches Wörterbuch.Boris Paraschkewow:Wörter und Namen gleicher Herkunft und Struktur.Lexikon etymologischer Dubletten im Deutschen. Berlin, 2004, p. 107
^Ulrich Nonn:Die Franken. Stuttgart, 2010, pp. 11–14 ff.
^Friedrich Helmer:Bayern im Frankenreich (5.–10. Jahrhundert). In:Politische Geschichte Bayerns, herausgegeben vom Haus der Bayerischen Geschichte als Heft 9 derHefte zur Bayerischen Geschichte und Kultur, pp. 4–6, here: p. 4
^abRudolf Endres:Der Fränkische Reichskreis. In:Hefte zur Bayerischen Geschichte und Kultur 29, published by the House of Bavarian History, Regensburg, 2003, p. 37, seeonline versionArchived 2016-03-04 at theWayback Machine (pdf)
^Ulrich Maier (Justinus-Kerner-Gymnasium Weinsberg):Schwäbisch oder fränkisch? Mundart im Raum Heilbronn Bausteine zu einer Unterrichtseinheit.see online pdfArchived 2016-03-04 at theWayback Machine
^abStefan Glaser, Gerhard Doppler and Klaus fword (eds.):GeoBavaria. 600 Millionen Jahre Bayern. Internationale Edition. Bayerisches Geologisches Landesamt, Munich, 2004 (onlineArchived 2016-03-04 at theWayback Machine), p. 4
^Stefan Glaser, Gerhard Doppler and Klaus fword. (eds.):GeoBavaria. 600 Millionen Jahre Bayern. Internationale Edition. Bayerisches Geologisches Landesamt, Munich, 2004 (onlineArchived 2016-03-04 at theWayback Machine), p. 24
^abStefan Glaser, Gerhard Doppler and Klaus Schwerd (eds.):GeoBavaria. 600 million years Bavaria. International Edition. GeoBavaria. 600 Millionen Jahre Bayern. Internationale Edition. Bayerisches Geologisches Landesamt, Munich, 2004 (onlineArchived 2016-03-04 at theWayback Machine), p. 26
^Dickinson, Robert E (1964).Germany: A regional and economic geography (2nd ed.). London: Methuen, p 568. .
^Walter Freudenberger:Tektonik: Deckgebirge nördlich der Donau. In: Walter Freudenberger, Klaus Schwerd (Red.):Erläuterungen zur Geologischen Karte von Bayern 1:500 000. Bayerisches Geologisches Landesamt, Munich, 1996 (onlineArchived 2016-03-04 at theWayback Machine), p. 259-265
^abStefan Glaser, Gerhard Doppler and Klaus Schwerde. (eds.): Stefan Glaser, Gerhard Doppler und Klaus Schwerd (Red.):GeoBavaria. 600 Millionen Jahre Bayern. Internationale Edition. Bayerisches Geologisches Landesamt, Munich, 2004 (onlineArchived 2016-03-04 at theWayback Machine), p. 40 ff.
^Hans-Georg Herbig, Thomas Wotte, Stefanie Becker:First proof of archaeocyathid-bearing Lower Cambrian in the Franconian Forest (Saxothuringian Zone, Northeast Bavaria). In: Jiři Žák, Gernold Zulauf, Heinz-Gerd Röhling (Hrsg.):Crustal evolution and geodynamic processes in Central Europe. Proceedings of the Joint conference of the Czech and German geological societies held in Plzeň (Pilsen), September 16–19, 2013. Schriftenreihe der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Geowissenschaften. No. 82, 2013, p. 50 (full text:Researchgate)
^Hartmut Haubold:Die Saurierfährten Chirotherium barthiiKaup, 1835 - das Typusmaterial aus dem Buntsandstein bei Hildburghausen/Thüringen und das "Chirotherium-Monument". Publication by the Natural History Museum, Schleusingen, vol. 21, 2006, pp. 3–31
^abFrank-Otto Haderer, Georges Demathieu, Ronald Böttcher:Wirbeltier-Fährten aus dem Rötquarzit (Oberer Buntsandstein, Mittlere Trias) von Hardheim bei Wertheim/Main (Süddeutschland). Stuttgarter Beiträge zur Naturkunde, Serie B. No. 230, 1995,onlineArchived 2017-09-29 at theWayback Machine
^Laura K. Säilä:The Osteology and Affinities ofAnomoiodon liliensterni, a Procolophonid Reptile from the Lower Triassic Buntsandstein of Germany. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. Vol. 28, No. 4, 2008, pp. 1199–1205,doi:10.1671/0272-4634-28.4.1199
^Friedrich von Huene:Ueber die Procolophoniden, mit einer neuen Form aus dem Buntsandstein. Centralblatt für Mineralogie, Geologie und Paläontologie. 1911 issue, 1911, pp. 78–83
^Rainer R. Schoch:Comparative osteology ofMastodonsaurus giganteus (Jaeger, 1828) from the Middle Triassic (Lettenkeuper: Longobardian) of Germany (Baden-Württemberg, Bayern, Thüringen). Stuttgarter Beiträge zur Naturkunde, Series B. No. 278, 1999, pp. 21 and 27 (PDF 3,6 MB)
^Emily J. Rayfield, Paul M. Barrett, Andrew R. Milner: Utility and Validity of Middle and Late Triassic 'Land Vertebrate Faunachrons'. In:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. Vol. 29, 2009, No. 1, pp. 80–87,doi:10.1671/039.029.0132.
^Olivier Rieppel:The genusPlacodus: Systematics, Morphology, Paleobiogeography, and Paleobiology. Fieldiana Geology, New Series, No. 31, 1995,doi:10.5962/bhl.title.3301.
^Olivier Rieppel, Rupert Wild.A Revision of the GenusNothosaurus (Reptilia: Sauropterygia) from the Germanic Triassic, with Comments on the Status ofConchiosaurus clavatus. Fieldiana Geology, New Series, No. 34, 1996.doi:10.5962/bhl.title.2691
^Markus Moser: Plateosaurus engelhardtiMEYER, 1837 (Dinosauria: Sauropodomorpha) aus dem Feuerletten (Mittelkeuper; Obertrias) von Bayern. Zitteliana, Series B: Treatises of the Bavarian State Collection for Palaeontology and Geology. Vol. 24, 2003, pp. 3-186,urn:nbn:de:bvb:19-epub-12711-3
^Birgit Niebuhr:Wer hat hier gelogen? Die Würzburger Lügenstein-Affaire. Fossilien. No. 1/2006, 2006, S. 15–19 ("PDF"(PDF). Archived from the original on September 13, 2014. Retrieved2016-01-11.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) 886 kB)
^Hans-Peter Uenze, Claus-Michael Hüssen:Vor- und Frühgeschichte. In: Handbuch der Bayerischen Geschichte, begr. von Max Spindler, 3rd vol., 1st sub-vol.: Geschichte Frankens bis zum Ausgang des 18. Jahrhunderts, re-published by Andreas Kraus, 3rd, revised edition, Munich, 1997, pp. 3–46, here: pp. 17ff.
^Josef Motschmann:Altenkunstadt - Heimat zwischen Kordigast und Main. Gemeinde Altenkunstadt, Altenkunstadt, 2006, p. 10
^Peter Kolb, Ernst-Günter Krenig:Unterfränkische Geschichte. Von der germanischen Landnahme bis zum hohen Mittelalter., Vol. 1. Würzburg, 1989; second edition: 1990, pp. 27–37.
^abWilfried Menghin:Grundlegung: Das frühe Mittelalter. In: Handbuch der Bayerischen Geschichte, begr. von Max Spindler, 3rd vol., 1st sub-vol.: Geschichte Frankens bis zum Ausgang des 18. Jahrhunderts, re-published by Andreas Kraus, 3rd, revised edition, Munich, 1997, pp. 47–69, here: p. 60
^abWilfried Menghin:Grundlegung: Das frühe Mittelalter. In: Handbuch der Bayerischen Geschichte, begr. von Max Spindler, 3. Bd., 1. Teilbd: Geschichte Frankens bis zum Ausgang des 18. Jahrhunderts, re-published by Andreas Kraus, 3rd, revised edition, Munich, 1997, pp. 47–69, here: S. 55.
^Franz-Joseph Schmale, Wilhelm Störmer:Die politische Entwicklung bis zur Eingliederung ins Merowingische Frankenreich. In: Handbuch der Bayerischen Geschichte, begr. von Max Spindler, 3rd vol., 1st sub-vol.: Geschichte Frankens bis zum Ausgang des 18. Jahrhunderts, re-published by Andreas Kraus, 3rd, revised edition, Munich, 1997, pp. 89–114, here: p. 80.
^Friedrich Helmer:Bayern im Frankenreich (5. - 10. Jahrhundert), In:Politische Geschichte Bayerns, published by the Haus der Bayerischen Geschichte as Issue 9 of theHefte zur Bayerischen Geschichte und Kultur, pp. 4–6, here: p. 6
^abJosef Kirmeier:Bayern und das Deutsche Reich (10.-12. Jahrhundert), In:Politische Geschichte Bayerns, published by the Haus der Bayerischen Geschichte as Issue 9 of theHefte zur Bayerischen Geschichte und Kultur, pp. 7–9, here: p. 7
^abKarten zur Geschichte Bayerns: Jutta Schumann / Dieter J. Weiß, in: Edel und Frei. Franken im Mittelalter, ed. by Wolfgang Jahn / Jutta Schumann / Evamaria Brockhoff, Augsburg, 2004 (Veröffentlichungen zur Bayerischen Geschichte und Kultur 47/04), pp. 174–176, Cat. No. 51. SeeHaus der Bayerischen GeschichteArchived 2016-03-04 at theWayback Machine
^Alois Gerlich, Franz Machilek:Die innere Entwicklung vom Interregnum bis 1800: Staat, Gesellschaft, Kirche Wirtschaft. - Staat und Gesellschaft. Erster Teil: bis 1500 In: Handbuch der Bayerischen Geschichte, begr. von Max Spindler, 3rd vol., 1st sub-vol.: Geschichte Frankens bis zum Ausgang des 18. Jahrhunderts, re-published by Andreas Kraus, 3rd, revised edition, Munich, 1997, pp. 537–701, here: p. 602.
^Rudolf Endres:Staat und Gesellschaft. Zweiter Teil: 1500-1800. In: Handbuch der Bayerischen Geschichte, begr. von Max Spindler, 3rd vol., 1st sub-vol.: Geschichte Frankens bis zum Ausgang des 18. Jahrhunderts, re-published by Andreas Kraus, 3rd, revised edition, Munich, 1997, pp. 702–781, here: pp. 752ff
^Wilhelm Störmer:Die innere Entwicklung: Staat, Gesellschaft, Kirche, Wirtschaft. In: Handbuch der Bayerischen Geschichte, begr. von Max Spindler, 3rd vol., 1st sub-vol.: Geschichte Frankens bis zum Ausgang des 18. Jahrhunderts, re-published by Andreas Kraus, 3rd revised edition, Munich, 1997, pp. 210–315, here: p. 314.
^Rudolf Endres:Der Fränkische Reichskreis, In:Hefte zur Bayerischen Geschichte und Kultur 29, published by the Haus der Bayerischen Geschichte, Regensburg, 2003, p. 21, seeonline versionArchived 2016-06-11 at theWayback Machine (pdf)
^Michael Henker:Bayern im Zeitalter von Reformation und Gegenreformation (16./17. Jahrhundert), In:Politische Geschichte Bayerns, published by the Haus der Bayerischen Geschichte as Issue 9 of theHefte zur Bayerischen Geschichte und Kultur, pp. 14–17, here: p. 14
^Pütter, John Stephen.An Historical Development of the Present Political Constitution of the Germanic Empire, Vol. 3, London: Payne, 1790, p. 156.
^Rudolf Endres:Von der Bildung des Fränkischen Reichskreises und dem Beginn der Reformation bis zum Augsburger Religionsfrieden von 1555. In: Handbuch der Bayerischen Geschichte, edited by Max Spindler, 3rd vol., 1st sub-vol.: Geschichte Frankens bis zum Ausgang des 18. Jahrhunderts, re-published by Andreas Kraus, 3rd revised edition, Munich, 1997, pp. 451–472, here: pp. 455ff.
^Rudolf Endres:Von der Bildung des Fränkischen Reichskreises und dem Beginn der Reformation bis zum Augsburger Religionsfrieden von 1555. In: Handbuch der Bayerischen Geschichte, edited by Max Spindler, 3rd vol., 1st sub-vol.: Geschichte Frankens bis zum Ausgang des 18. Jahrhunderts, re-published by Andreas Kraus, 3rd revised edition, Munich, 1997, pp. 451–472, here: p. 467.
^Birke Grießhammer:Verfolgt – gefoltert – verbrannt. Die Opfer des Hexenwahns in Franken., pp. 15 ff
^Rudolf Endres:Von der Bildung des Fränkischen Reichskreises und dem Beginn der Reformation bis zum Augsburger Religionsfrieden von 1555. In: Handbuch der Bayerischen Geschichte, ed. Max Spindler, 3 vols., 1 sub-vol: History of Franconia to the end of the 18th century, revised by Andreas Kraus, 3rd revised edition, Munich, 1997, pp. 451-472, here: p. 469
^Michael Henker:Bayern im Zeitalter von Reformation und Gegenreformation (16./17. Jahrhundert), In:Politische Geschichte Bayerns, published by the House of Bavarian History as Issue 9 of theHefte zur Bayerischen Geschichte und Kultur, pp. 14–17, here: p. 15
^Rudolf Endres.Der Fränkische Reichskreis, In:Hefte zur Bayerischen Geschichte und Kultur 29, published by the House of Bavarian History, Regensburg, 2003, p. 19, seeonline version (pdf)
^Rudolf Endres:Vom Augsburger Religionsfrieden bis zum Dreißigjährigen Krieg. In: Handbuch der Bayerischen Geschichte, ed. Max Spindler, 3rd vol., 1st sub-vol: Geschichte Frankens bis zum Ausgang des 18. Jahrhunderts, revised by Andreas Kraus, 3rd revised edn., Munich, 1997, pp. 473–495, here: p. 490.
^Michael Henker:Bayern im Zeitalter von Reformation und Gegenreformation (16./17. Jahrhundert), In:Politische Geschichte Bayerns, published by the House of Bavarian History as Issue 9 of theHefte zur Bayerischen Geschichte und Kultur, pp. 14–17, here: p. 17
^abKarlheinz Scherr:Bayern im Zeitalter des Fürstlichen Absolutismus (17./18. Jahrhundert), In:Politische Geschichte Bayerns, published by the House of Bavarian History as Issue 9 of theHefte zur Bayerischen Geschichte und Kultur, pp. 18–21, here: p. 20
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^Dietmar Willoweit:Reich und Staat: Eine kleine deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte, p. 70
^Max Seeberger et al.:Wie Bayern vermessen wurde, booklets on Bavarian History and Culture, Volume 26, published by the House of Bavarian History in collaboration with theDeutsches Museum andBavarian State Survey Office, Munich, Augsburg, 2001, pp. 11-12
^Manfred Treml:Das Königreich Bayern (1806 - 1918). in: Political History of Bavaria, published by the House of Bavarian history as No. 9 of ten booklets on Bavarian History and Culture, 1989, pp. 22-25, here: p. 23
^Katharina Weigand:Gaibach. Eine Jubelfeier für die bayerische Verfassung von 1818? In: Alois Schmid, Katharina Weigand (eds.):Schauplätze der Geschichte in Bayern. Munich, 2003, pp. 291-308, here: p. 291
^Edition Bayern: Industriekultur in Bayern, published by the House of Bavarian History, p. 123
^abWolf Weigand:Bayern zur Zeit der Weimarer Republik und des Nationalsozialismus (1918 - 1945). In:Politische Geschichte Bayerns published by the House of Bavarian History as No. 9 of the booklets on Bavarian History and Culture, 1989, pp. 26-28, here: p. 26
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^Werner Falk:Ein früher Hass auf Juden in Nürnberger Nachrichten, 25 March 2009.
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^Bamberg, die Altstadt als Denkmal: Denkmalschutz, Modernisierung, Sanierung, Moos, 1981, p. 172
^abSteffen Raßloff:Geschichte Thüringens. Munich, 2010, p. 106
^Werner Abelshauser:Deutsche Wirtschaftsgeschichte seit 1945. C.H. Beck, Munich, 2004, chapter on "Die Reparationsfrage", pp. 75-84.
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^abKarten zur Geschichte Bayerns: Helmut Flachenecker, in: Edel und Frei. Franken im Mittelalter, ed. by Wolfgang Jahn / Jutta Schumann / Evamaria Brockhoff, Augsburg, 2004 (Veröffentlichungen zur Bayerischen Geschichte und Kultur 47/04), pp. 308–313, Cat. No. 134. SeeHouse of Bavarian HistoryArchived 4 March 2016 at theWayback Machine
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^"Kontakt".Mitropolia Ortodoxă Română a Germaniei, Europei Centrale și de Nord (in German). 27 November 2013. Retrieved28 May 2025.
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^Hartwig Behr, Horst F. Rupp:Vom Leben und Sterben. Juden in Creglingen. 2nd edition. Königshausen and Neumann, Würzburg. 2001;ISBN3-8260-2226-2
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Blessing, Werner K. and Dieter Weiß (eds.):Franken. Vorstellung und Wirklichkeit in der Geschichte. (=Franconia. Appendices to the Yearbook for Franconian State Research, Vol. 1), Neustadt (Aisch), 2003.
Bogner, Franz X.Franken aus der Luft. Stürtz-Verlag Würzburg, 2008,ISBN978-3-8003-1913-8.
Bogner, Franz X.Oberfranken aus der Luft. Ellwanger-Verlag, 128 pages. Bayreuth, 2011,ISBN978-3-925361-95-1.
Bötzinger, Martin.Leben und Leiden während des Dreißigjährigen Krieges in Thüringen und Franken. Langensalza, ²1997,ISBN3-929000-39-3.
Elkar, Rainer S.Geschichtslandschaft Franken - wohlbestelltes Feld mit Lücken. In: Jahrbuch für Regionalgeschichte 23 (2005), pp. 145–158.
Fischer,Berndt.Naturerlebnis Franken. Streifzüge durch eine Seelenlandschaft. Buch & Kunstverlag Oberpfalz, Amberg, 2001,ISBN3-924350-91-4.
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Wüst, Wolfgang (ed.):Frankens Städte und Territorien als Kulturdrehscheibe. Kommunikation in der Mitte Deutschlands. Interdisciplinary conference 29 to 30 September 2006 in Weißenburg i. Bayern (Mittelfränkische Studien 19) Ansbach, 2008,ISBN978-3-87707-713-9.
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