| French Republic | |
|---|---|
.svg) | |
| Nuclear program start date | 26 December 1954 |
| First nuclear weapon test | February 13, 1960 |
| First thermonuclear weapon test | August 24, 1968 |
| Last nuclear test | January 27, 1996 |
| Largest yield test | 2.6 Mt (August 24, 1968) |
| Total tests | 210 |
| Peak stockpile | 540 (1992) |
| Current stockpile | ~290 warheads (2023)[1] |
| Current strategic arsenal | ~290 warheads (2024)[2] |
| Cumulative strategic arsenal inmegatonnage | ~51.6[3] |
| Maximum missile range | ~8000-10000km/5000-6250mi (M51 SLBM) |
| NPT party | Yes (1992, one of five recognized powers) |
| Nuclear weapons |
|---|
 |
| Background |
| Nuclear-armed states |
|
France is one of the five "Nuclear Weapons States" under theTreaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, but is not known to possess or develop anychemical orbiological weapons.[4][5] France is the only member of theEuropean Union to possess independent (non-NATO) nuclear weapons. France was the fourth country to test an independently developed nuclear weapon, doing so in 1960 under the government ofCharles de Gaulle. TheFrench military is currently thought to retain a weaponsstockpile of around 290[6] operational (deployed)nuclear warheads, making it thefourth-largest in the world, speaking in terms of warheads, not megatons.[7] The weapons are part of the country'sForce de dissuasion, developed in the late 1950s and 1960s to give France the ability to distance itself from NATO while having a means ofnuclear deterrence under sovereign control.
France did not sign thePartial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, thereby maintaining the option to conduct further nuclear tests until it signed and ratified theComprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty in 1996 and 1998 respectively. France denies currently havingchemical weapons, ratified theChemical Weapons Convention (CWC) in 1995, and acceded to theBiological Weapons Convention (BWC) in 1984. France had also ratified theGeneva Protocol in 1926.
France was one of the nuclear pioneers, going back to the work ofMarie Skłodowska Curie andHenri Becquerel. French ProfessorFrédéric Joliot-Curie,High Commissioner for Atomic Energy from 1945 to 1950 and Curie's son in law, told theNew York Herald Tribune that the 1945Smyth Report wrongfully omitted the contributions of French scientists.[8]
After World War II France's former position of leadership suffered greatly because of the instability of theFourth Republic, and the lack of finance available.[9] During the Second World WarBertrand Goldschmidt invented the now-standard method for extractingplutonium while working as part of theBritish/Canadian team participating in theManhattan Project. But after the Liberation in 1945, France had to start its own program almost from scratch. Nevertheless, the first French reactor went critical in 1948 and small amounts of plutonium were extracted in 1949. There was no formal commitment to a nuclear weapons program at that time, although plans were made to build reactors for the large scale production of plutonium.[10]Francis Perrin,French High-Commissioner for Atomic Energy from 1951 to 1970, stated that from 1949 Israeli scientists were invited to theSaclay Nuclear Research Centre, this cooperation leading to a joint effort including sharing of knowledge between French and Israeli scientists especially those with knowledge from the Manhattan Project,[11][12][13] the French believed that cooperation with Israel could give them access to international Jewish nuclear scientists.[14] According to Lieutenant Colonel Warner D. Farr in a report to theUSAF Counterproliferation Center while France was previously a leader in nuclear research "Israel and France were at a similar level of expertise after the war, and Israeli scientists could make significant contributions to the French effort. Progress in nuclear science and technology in France and Israel remained closely linked throughout the early fifties. Farr reported that Israeli scientists probably helped construct the G-1 plutonium production reactor and UP-1 reprocessing plant atMarcoule."[15]
However, in the 1950s acivilian nuclear research program was started, a byproduct of which would be plutonium. In December 1954, Prime MinisterPierre Mendès France met with his cabinet, authorizing the foundation of a program with the goal of developing French nuclear weapons.[10] In 1956 a secret Committee for the Military Applications of Atomic Energy was formed and a development program for delivery vehicles was started. The intervention of the United States in theSuez Crisis that year is credited with convincing France that it needed to accelerate its own nuclear weapons program to remain aglobal power.[16] As part of their military alliance during the Suez Crisis in 1956 the French agreed to secretly build theDimona nuclear reactor in Israel and soon after agreed to construct a reprocessing plant for the extraction of plutonium at the site. In 1957, soon after Suez and the resulting diplomatic tension with both theSoviet Union and the United States, French presidentRené Coty decided on the creation of theC.S.E.M. in the thenFrench Sahara, a new nuclear testing facility replacing theCIEES.[17]
In 1957Euratom was created, and under cover of the peaceful use of nuclear power the French signed deals with West Germany and Italy to work together on nuclear weapons development.[18] TheChancellor of West GermanyKonrad Adenauer told his cabinet that he "wanted to achieve, through EURATOM, as quickly as possible, the chance of producing our own nuclear weapons".[19] The idea was short-lived. In 1958 de Gaulle became president and Germany and Italy were excluded.[citation needed]
With the return ofCharles de Gaulle to the presidency of France in the midst of theMay 1958 crisis, the final decisions to build an atomic bomb were taken, and a successful test took place in 1960 with Israeli scientists as observers at the tests and unlimited access to the scientific data.[20] Following tests de Gaulle moved quickly to distance the French program from involvement with that of Israel.[21] Since then France has developed and maintained its ownnuclear deterrent, one intended to defend France even if the United States refused to risk its own cities by assisting Western Europe in a nuclear war.[22]
The United States began providing technical assistance to the French program in the early 1970s through the 1980s. The aid was secret, unlike the relationship with theBritish nuclear program. TheNixon administration, unlike previous presidencies, did not oppose its allies' possession of atomic weapons and believed that the Soviets would find having multiple nuclear-armed Western opponents more difficult. Because theAtomic Energy Act of 1946 prohibited sharing information on nuclear weapon design, a method known as "negative guidance" or "Twenty Questions" was used; French scientists described to their U.S. counterparts their research, and were told whether they were correct. Areas in which the French received help includedMIRV,radiation hardening, missile design, intelligence onSoviet anti-missile defences, and advanced computer technology. Because the French program attracted "the best brains" of the nation, the U.S. benefited from French research as well. The relationship also improved the two countries' military ties; despite its departure fromNATO's command structure in 1966, France developed two separate nuclear targeting plans, one "national" for theForce de Frappe's role as a solely French deterrent, and one coordinated with NATO.[22]
France is understood to have testedneutron orenhanced radiation bombs in the past, apparently leading the field with an early test of the technology in 1967[23] and an "actual" neutron bomb in 1980.[a]
There were 210 French nuclear tests from 1960 through 1996. Seventeen of them were done in the Algerian Sahara between 1960 and 1966, starting in the middle of theAlgerian War. One-hundred ninety-three were carried out inFrench Polynesia.[25][26]
A summary table of French nuclear testing by year can be read at this article:List of nuclear weapons tests of France.
After studyingRéunion,New Caledonia, andClipperton Island, General Charles Ailleret, head of the Special Weapons Section, proposed two possible nuclear test sites for France in a January 1957 report:French Algeria in theSahara Desert, andFrench Polynesia. Although he recommended against Polynesia because of its distance from France and lack of a large airport, Ailleret stated that Algeria should be chosen "provisionally", likely due in part to the Algerian War.[27]
A series of atmosphericnuclear tests was conducted by theCentre Saharien d'Expérimentations Militaires ("Saharan Military Experiments Centre") from February 1960 until April 1961. The first, calledGerboise Bleue ("Bluejerboa") took place on 13 February 1960 in Algeria. The explosion took place at 40 km from the military base atHammoudia nearReggane, which is the last town on theTanezrouft Track heading south across the Sahara toMali, and 700 km/435 mi. south ofBéchar.[28] The device had a 70 kiloton yield. Although Algeria became independent in 1962, France was able to continue with underground nuclear tests in Algeria through 1966. The GeneralPierre Marie Gallois was namedle père de la bombe A ("Father of the A-bomb").
Three further atmospheric tests were carried out from 1 April 1960 to 25 April 1961 atHammoudia. Military, workers and the nomadic Touareg population of the region were present at the test sites, without any significant protection. At most, some took a shower after each test according toL'Humanité.[29]Gerboise Rouge (5kt), the third atomic bomb, half as powerful asLittle Boy, exploded on 27 December 1960, provoking protests fromJapan,USSR,Egypt,Morocco,Nigeria andGhana.[30]
After theindependence ofAlgeria on 5 July 1962, following the 19 March 1962Evian agreements, the French military moved the test site to another location in the AlgerianSahara, around 150 km north of Tamnarasset, near the village of In Eker. Underground nuclear explosion testing was performed in drifts in the Taourirt Tan Afella mountain, one of the graniteHoggar Mountains. The Evian agreements included a secret article which stated that "Algeria concede[s]... to France the use of certain air bases, terrains, sites and military installations which are necessary to it [France]" during five years.
The C.S.E.M. was therefore replaced by theCentre d'Expérimentations Militaires des Oasis ("Military Experiments Center of the Oasis") underground nuclear testing facility. A total of 13 underground nuclear tests were carried out at the In Eker site from 7 November 1961 to 16 February 1966. By July 1, 1967, all French facilities were evacuated.
An accident happened on 1 May 1962, during the "Béryl" test, four times more powerful than Hiroshima and designed as an underground shaft test.[31] Due to improper sealing of the shaft, radioactive rock and dust were released into the atmosphere. Nine soldiers of the 621st Groupe d'Armes Spéciales unit were heavily contaminated byradiation.[32] The soldiers were exposed to as much as 600 mSv. The Minister of the Armed Forces,Pierre Messmer, and the Minister of Research,Gaston Palewski, were present. As many as 100 additional personnel, including officials, soldiers and Algerian workers were exposed to lower levels of radiation, estimated at 50 mSv, when theradioactive cloud produced by the blast passed over the command post, due to an unexpected change in wind direction. They escaped as they could, often without wearing any protection. Palewski died in 1984 ofleukemia, which he always attributed to theBéryl incident. In 2006,Bruno Barrillot, specialist of nuclear tests, measured 93microsieverts by hour of gamma ray at the site, equivalent to 1% of the official admissible yearly dose.[29] The incident was documented in the 2006 docudrama "Vive La Bombe!.[33]
Despite its initial choice of Algeria for nuclear tests, the French government decided to buildFaa'a International Airport in Tahiti, spending much more money and resources than would be justified by the official explanation of tourism. By 1958, two years before the first Sahara test, France began again its search for new testing sites due to potential political problems with Algeria and the possibility of a ban on above-ground tests. ManyFrench overseas islands were studied, as well as performing underground tests in theAlps,Pyrenees, orCorsica; however, engineers found problems with most of the possible sites inmetropolitan France.[27]
By 1962 France hoped in its negotiations with theAlgerian independence movement to retain the Sahara as a test site until 1968, but decided that it needed to be able to also perform above-ground tests ofhydrogen bombs, which could not be done in Algeria.Mururoa andFangataufa in French Polynesia were chosen that year.PresidentCharles de Gaulle announced the choice on 3 January 1963, describing it as a benefit to Polynesia's weak economy. The Polynesian people and leaders broadly supported the choice, although the tests became controversial after they began, especially among Polynesian separatists.[27]
A total of 193 nuclear tests were carried out in Polynesia from 1966 to 1996.[citation needed] On 24 August 1968 France detonated its first thermonuclear weapon—codenamedCanopus—over Fangataufa. A fission device ignited a lithium-6 deuteride secondary inside a jacket of highly enriched uranium to create a 2.6megaton blast.[citation needed]
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More recently, France has used supercomputers to simulate and study nuclear explosions.[citation needed]
French law requires at least one out of four nuclear submarines to be on patrol in the Atlantic Ocean at any given time, like the UK's policy.[35]
In 2006, FrenchPresidentJacques Chirac noted that France would be willing to use nuclear weapons against a state attacking France by terrorism. He noted that the French nuclear forces had been configured for this option.[36]
On 21 March 2008, PresidentNicolas Sarkozy announced that France will reduce its aircraft deliverable nuclear weapon stockpile (which currently consists of 60TN 81 warheads) by a third (20 warheads) and bring the total French nuclear arsenal to fewer than 300 warheads.[37][38]
France decided not to sign the UNtreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[39]
An association gathering veterans of nuclear tests (AVEN, "Association des vétérans des essais nucléaires") was created in 2001.[48] Along with the Polynesian NGOMoruroa e tatou, the AVEN announced on 27 November 2002 that it would depose a complaint against X (unknown) for involuntary homicide and putting someone’s life in danger. On 7 June 2003, for the first time, the military court ofTours granted an invalidity pension to a veteran of the Sahara tests. According to a poll made by the AVEN with its members, only 12% have declared being in good health.[29] An international symposium on the consequences of test carried out in Algeria took place on 13 and 14 February 2007, under the official oversight of PresidentAbdelaziz Bouteflika.
One hundred fifty thousand civilians, without taking into account the local population, are estimated to have been on the location of nuclear tests, in Algeria or in French Polynesia.[29] One French veteran of the 1960s nuclear tests in Algeria described being given no protective clothing or masks, while being ordered to witness the tests at so close a range that the flash penetrated through the arm he used to cover his eyes.[49] One of several veteran’s groups claiming to organise those suffering ill effects, AVEN had 4,500 members in early 2009.[48]
In both Algeria and French Polynesia there have been long standing demands for compensation from those who claim injury from France’s nuclear testing program. The government of France had consistently denied, since the late 1960s, that injury to military personnel and civilians had been caused by their nuclear testing.[50] Several French veterans and African and Polynesian campaign groups have waged court cases and public relations struggles demanding government reparations. In May 2009, a group of twelve French veterans, in the campaign group "Truth and Justice", who claim to have suffered health effects from nuclear testing in the 1960s had their claims denied by the government Commission for the Indemnification of Victims of Penal Infraction (CIVI), and again by a Paris appeals court, citing laws which set a statute of limitations for damages to 1976.[51] Following this rejection, the government announced it would create a 10m Euro compensation fund for military and civilian victims of its testing programme; both those carried out in the 1960s and the Polynesian tests of 1990–1996.[50] Defence MinisterHervé Morin said the government would create a board of physicians, overseen by a French judge magistrate, to determine if individual cases were caused by French testing, and if individuals were suffering from illnesses on aUnited Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation list of eighteen disorders linked to exposure to testing.[50][52] Pressure groups, including the Veterans group "Truth and Justice" criticised the programme as too restrictive in illnesses covered and too bureaucratic. Polynesian groups said the bill would also unduly restrict applicants to those who had been in small areas near the test zones, not taking into account the pervasive pollution and radiation.[53] Algerian groups had also complained that these restrictions would deny compensation to many victims. One Algerian group estimated there were 27,000 still living victims of ill effects from the 1960–66 testing there, while the French government had given an estimate of just 500.[54]
France states that it does not currently possesschemical weapons. The country ratified theChemical Weapons Convention (CWC) in 1995, and acceded to theBiological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC) in 1984. France also ratified theGeneva Protocol in 1926.
DuringWorld War I, France, notGermany as commonly believed, was actually the first nation to use chemical weapons though this was notably a nonlethaltear gas attack (xylyl bromide) carried out in August 1914 against invading German troops. Once the war had degenerated intotrench warfare and new methods to attain an advantage were sought, theGerman Army initiated achlorine gas attack against the French Armyat Ypres on 15 April 1915, initiating a new method of warfare but failed that day to exploit the resulting break in the French line. In time, the more potentphosgene replaced chlorine in use by armies on the Western Front, including France, leading to massive casualties on both sides of the conflict. As the war progressed, the effects were mitigated by development of protective clothing and masks.
At the outbreak of World War II, France maintained large stockpiles of mustard gas and phosgene but did not use them against the invading Axis troops, and no chemical weapons were used on the battlefield by the Axis invaders.
During the invasion of France, German forces captured a French biological research facility and purportedly found plans to usepotato beetles against Germany.[55]
Immediately after the end of the war, the French military began testing captured German chemical agent stores in Algeria, then a French department, notably the extremely toxic nerve agentTabun. By the late 1940s, testing of Tabun-filled ordnance had become routine, often by using livestock to test effects.[56] The testing of chemical weapons occurred at B2-Namous,Algeria, an uninhabited desert proving ground located 100 kilometers (62 mi) east of the Moroccan border, but other sites also existed.[57][58] A manufacturing facility existed in Bouchet, near Paris, which was tasked with researching chemical weapons and maintaining a scientific and technological vigilance on the subject.[59]
In 1985, France was estimated to have a chemical weapons stockpile of some 435 tonnes, the second largest inNATO following the United States. However, at a conference in Paris in 1989, France declared that it was no longer in possession of chemical weaponry but maintained the manufacturing capacity to readily produce such weapons if deemed necessary.[60]
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