Source gives area of metropolitan France as 551,500 km2 (212,900 sq mi) and lists overseas regions separately, whose areas sum to 89,179 km2 (34,432 sq mi). Adding these give the total shown here for the entire French Republic.The World Factbook reports the total as 643,801 km2 (248,573 sq mi).
Originally applied to the wholeFrankish Empire, the nameFrance comes from theLatinFrancia, or 'realm of theFranks'.[11] Thename of the Franks is related to the English wordfrank ('free'): the latter stems from theOld Frenchfranc ('free, noble, sincere'), and ultimately from theMedieval Latin wordfrancus ('free, exempt from service; a freeman, a Frank'), a generalisation of the tribal name that emerged as aLate Latin borrowing of the reconstructedFrankishendonym*Frank.[12][13] It has been suggested that the meaning 'free' was adopted because after the conquest ofGaul, only Franks were free of taxation,[14] or more generally because they had the status of freemen in contrast to servants or slaves.[13] The etymology of*Frank is uncertain. It is traditionally derived from theProto-Germanic word*frankōn, which translates as 'javelin' or 'lance' (the throwing axe of the Franks was known as thefrancisca),[15] although these weapons may have been named because of their use by the Franks, not the other way around.[13]
After demographic and agricultural development between the 4th and 3rd millennia BC,metallurgy appeared, initially working gold,copper andbronze, then lateriron.[19] France has numerousmegalithic sites from the Neolithic, including theCarnac stones site (approximately 3,300 BC).
Antiquity (6th century BC – 5th century AD)
In 600 BC,IonianGreeks fromPhocaea founded the colony ofMassalia (present-dayMarseille).[20] Celtic tribes penetrated parts of eastern and northern France, spreading through the rest of the country between the 5th and 3rd century BC.[21] Around 390 BC, the Gallic chieftainBrennus and his troops made their way toRoman Italy, defeated the Romans in theBattle of the Allia, and besieged and ransomed Rome.[22] This left Rome weakened, and the Gauls continued to harass the region until 345 BC when they entered into a peace treaty.[23] But the Romans and the Gauls remained adversaries for centuries.[24]
Around 125 BC, the south of Gaul was conquered by the Romans, who called this regionProvincia Nostra ("Our Province"), which evolved intoProvence in French.[25]Julius Caesar conquered the remainder of Gaul and overcame a revolt by Gallic chieftainVercingetorix in 52 BC.[26] Gaul was divided byAugustus into provinces,[27] and many cities were founded during theGallo-Roman period, includingLugdunum (present-dayLyon), the capital of the Gauls.[27] In 250–290 AD, Roman Gaul suffered a crisis with itsfortified borders attacked by barbarians.[28] The situation improved in the first half of the 4th century, a period of revival and prosperity.[29] In 312, EmperorConstantine Iconverted to Christianity. Christians, who had been persecuted, increased.[30] But from the 5th century, thebarbarian invasions resumed.[31]Teutonic tribes invaded the region, theVisigoths settling in the southwest, theBurgundians along theRhine Valley, and the Franks in the north.[32]
The first leader to unite all Franks wasClovis I, who began his reign as king of theSalian Franks in 481, routing the last forces of the Roman governors in 486. Clovis said he would be baptised a Christian in the event of victory against theVisigothic Kingdom, which was said to have guaranteed the battle. Clovisregained the southwest from the Visigoths and was baptised in 508. Clovis was the firstGermanic conqueror after theFall of the Western Roman Empire to convert to Catholic Christianity; thus France was given the title "Eldest daughter of the Church" by the papacy,[33] and French kings were called "the Most Christian Kings of France".
During the 9th and 10th centuries, threatened byViking invasions, France became a decentralised state: the nobility's titles and lands became hereditary, and the authority of the king became more religious than secular and so was less effective and challenged by noblemen. Thus was establishedfeudalism in France. Some king's vassals grew so powerful they posed a threat to the king. After theBattle of Hastings in 1066,William the Conqueror added "King of England" to his titles, becoming vassal and the equal of the king of France, creating recurring tensions.
The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987, whenHugh Capet was crownedking of the Franks.[37] His descendants unified the country through wars and inheritance. From 1190, theCapetian rulers began to be referred as "kings of France" rather than "kings of the Franks".[38] Later kings expanded their directly possesseddomaine royal to cover over half of modern France by the 15th century. Royal authority became more assertive, centred on ahierarchically conceived society distinguishingnobility, clergy, andcommoners.
The nobility played a prominent role inCrusades to restore Christian access to theHoly Land. French knights made up most reinforcements in the 200 years of the Crusades, in such a fashion that the Arabs referred to crusaders asFranj.[39] French Crusaders imported French into theLevant, makingOld French the base of thelingua franca ("Frankish language") of theCrusader states.[39] TheAlbigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the hereticalCathars in the southwest of modern-day France.[40]
From the 11th century, theHouse of Plantagenet, rulers of theCounty of Anjou, established its dominion over the surrounding provinces ofMaine andTouraine, then built an "empire" from England to thePyrenees, covering half of modern France. Tensions between France and thePlantagenet empire would last a hundred years, untilPhilip II of France conquered, between 1202 and 1214, most continental possessions of the empire, leaving England andAquitaine to the Plantagenets.
Charles IV the Fair died without an heir in 1328.[41] The crown passed toPhilip of Valois rather than Edward of Plantagenet, who becameEdward III of England. During the reign of Philip, the monarchy reached the height of its medieval power.[41] However Philip's seat on the throne was contested by Edward in 1337, and England and France entered the off-and-onHundred Years' War.[42] Boundaries changed, but landholdings inside France by English kings remained extensive for decades. With charismatic leaders such asJoan of Arc, French counterattacks won back most English continental territories. France was struck by theBlack Death, from which half of the 17 million population died.[43]
TheFrench Renaissance saw cultural development and standardisation of French, which became theofficial language of France and Europe's aristocracy. France became rivals of theHouse of Habsburg during theItalian Wars, which would dictate much of their later foreign policy until the mid-18th century. French explorers claimed lands in the Americas, paving expansion of theFrench colonial empire. The rise of Protestantism led France to a civil war known as theFrench Wars of Religion.[44] This forcedHuguenots to flee to Protestant regions such as theBritish Isles andSwitzerland. The wars were ended byHenry IV'sEdict of Nantes, which granted some freedom of religion to the Huguenots.Spanish troops[45] assisted the Catholics from 1589 to 1594 and invaded France in 1597. Spain and France returned to all-out war between 1635 and 1659. TheFranco-Spanish War cost France 300,000 casualties.[46]
UnderLouis XIII,Cardinal Richelieu promoted centralisation of the state and reinforced royal power. He destroyed castles of defiant lords and denounced the use of private armies. By the end of the 1620s, Richelieu established "the royal monopoly of force".[47] France fought in theThirty Years' War, supporting the Protestant side against the Habsburgs. From the 16th to the 19th century, France was responsible for about 10% of thetransatlantic slave trade.[48]
DuringLouis XIV's minority, trouble known asThe Fronde occurred. This rebellion was driven by feudal lords andsovereign courts as a reaction to theroyal absolute power. The monarchy reached its peak during the 17th century and reign of Louis XIV, during which France further increased its influence.[49] By turning lords intocourtiers at thePalace of Versailles, his command of the military went unchallenged. The "Sun King" made France the leading European power. France became themost populous European country and had tremendous influence over European politics, economy, and culture. French became the most-used language in diplomacy,science, and literature until the 20th century.[50] France took control of territories in the Americas, Africa and Asia. In 1685, Louis XIVrevoked the Edict of Nantes, forcing thousands of Huguenots into exile and published theCode Noir providing the legal framework for slavery and expelling Jews from French colonies.[51]
The French Revolution was a period of political and societal change that began with theEstates General of 1789, and ended with thecoup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 and the formation of theFrench Consulate. Many of its ideas are fundamental principles ofliberal democracy,[53] while its values and institutions remain central to modern political discourse.[54]
These victories led to the worldwide expansion of French revolutionary ideals and reforms, such as themetric system,Napoleonic Code and Declaration of the Rights of Man. In 1812 Napoleonattacked Russia, reaching Moscow. Thereafter his army disintegrated through supply problems, disease, Russian attacks, and finally winter. After this catastrophic campaign and the ensuinguprising of European monarchies against his rule, Napoleon was defeated. About a million Frenchmendied during the Napoleonic Wars.[59] After hisbrief return from exile, Napoleon was finally defeated in 1815 at theBattle of Waterloo, and theBourbon monarchy was restored with new constitutional limitations.
Colonial empire
The discredited Bourbon dynasty was overthrown by theJuly Revolution of 1830, which established the constitutionalJuly Monarchy; French troops began theconquest of Algeria. Unrest led to theFrench Revolution of 1848 and the end of the July Monarchy. The abolition of slavery and the introduction of male universal suffrage was re-enacted in 1848. In 1852, president of the French Republic,Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, Napoleon I's nephew, was proclaimed emperor of theSecond Empire, as Napoleon III. He multiplied French interventions abroad, especially inCrimea,Mexico andItaly. Napoleon III was unseated following defeat in theFranco-Prussian War of 1870, and his regime was replaced by theThird Republic. By 1875, the French conquest of Algeria was complete, with approximately 825,000 Algerians killed from famine, disease, and violence.[60]
France hadcolonial possessions since the beginning of the 17th century, but in the 19th and 20th centuries its empire extended greatly and becamethe second-largest behind theBritish Empire.[61] Including metropolitan France, the total area reached almost 13 million square kilometres in the 1920s and 1930s, 9% of the world's land. Known as theBelle Époque, the turn of the century was characterised by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity and technological, scientific and cultural innovations. In 1905,state secularism wasofficially established.
A new constitution resulted in theFourth Republic (1946–1958), which saw strong economic growth (lesTrente Glorieuses). France was a founding member ofNATO and attempted toregain control of French Indochina, but was defeated by theViet Minh in 1954. France faced anotheranti-colonialistconflict in Algeria, then part of France and home to over one million European settlers (Pied-Noir). The French systematically used torture and repression, including extrajudicial killings to keep control.[67] This conflict nearly led to a coup and civil war.[68]
During theCold War, de Gaulle pursued a policy of "national independence" towards theWestern andEastern blocs. He withdrew from NATO's military-integrated command (while remaining within the alliance), launched anuclear development programme and made France thefourth nuclear power. Herestored cordialFranco-German relations to create a European counterweight between American and Soviet spheres of influence. However, he opposed any development of asupranational Europe, favouringsovereign nations. The revolt ofMay 1968 had an enormous social impact; it was a watershed moment when a conservative moral ideal (religion, patriotism, respect for authority) shifted to a more liberal moral ideal (secularism, individualism, sexual revolution). Although the revolt was a political failure (theGaullist party emerged stronger than before) it announced a split between the French and de Gaulle, who resigned.[72]
In the post-Gaullist era, France remained one of the most developedeconomies in the world but faced crises that resulted in high unemployment rates and increasing public debt. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, France has been at the forefront of the development of a supranationalEuropean Union, notably by signing theMaastricht Treaty in 1992, establishing theeurozone in 1999[73] and signing theTreaty of Lisbon in 2007.[74] France has fully reintegrated into NATO and since participated in most NATO-sponsored wars.[75] Since the 19th century, France hasreceived many immigrants, often maleforeign workers from European Catholic countries who generally returned home when not employed.[76] During the 1970s France faced an economic crisis and allowed new immigrants (mostly from theMaghreb, in northwest Africa)[76] to permanentlysettle in France with their families and acquire citizenship. It resulted in hundreds of thousands of Muslims living in subsidised public housing and suffering from high unemployment rates.[77] The government had a policy ofassimilation of immigrants, where they were expected to adhere to French values and norms.[78]
The vast majority of France's territory and population is situated in Western Europe and is calledMetropolitan France. It is bordered by theNorth Sea in the north, theEnglish Channel in the northwest, theAtlantic Ocean in the west and theMediterranean Sea in the southeast. Its land borders consist ofBelgium andLuxembourg in the northeast,Germany andSwitzerland in the east,Italy andMonaco in the southeast, andAndorra andSpain in the south and southwest. Except for the northeast, most of France's land borders are roughly delineated by natural boundaries and geographic features: to the south, thePyrenees and theAlps; to the southeast,Jura Mountains; and to the east, theRhine river. Metropolitan France includes various coastal islands, of which the largest isCorsica. Metropolitan France is situated mostly between latitudes41° and51° N, and longitudes6° W and10° E, on the western edge of Europe, and thus lies within the northerntemperate zone. Its continental part covers about 1000 km from north to south and from east to west.
Metropolitan France covers 551,500 square kilometres (212,935 sq mi),[83] the largest amongEuropean Union members.[73] France's total land area, with its overseas departments and territories (excludingAdélie Land), is 643,801 km2 (248,573 sq mi),[84] 0.45% of the total land area on Earth. France possesses a wide variety of landscapes, from coastal plains in the north and west to the mountain ranges of the Alps in the southeast, theMassif Central in the south-central andPyrenees in the southwest. With numerousoverseas departments and territories scattered across the planet, France possesses the second-largestexclusive economic zone (EEZ) in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,261,000 sq mi). Its EEZ covers approximately 8% of the total surface of all the EEZs of the world.
Metropolitan France has a wide variety of topographic sets and natural landscapes. During theHercynian uplift in thePaleozoic Era, theArmorican Massif, the Massif Central, theMorvan, theVosges andArdennes ranges and the island of Corsica were formed. These massifs delineate several sedimentary basins such as theAquitaine Basin in the southwest and theParis Basin in the north. Various routes of natural passage, such as theRhône Valley, allow easy communication. The Alpine, Pyrenean and Jura Mountains are much younger and have less eroded forms. At 4,810.45 metres (15,782 ft)[85] above sea level,Mont Blanc in the Alps is the highest point in Western Europe. 60% of municipalities are classified as having moderate seismic risk.
The coastlines offer contrasting landscapes: mountain ranges along theFrench Riviera, coastal cliffs such as theCôte d'Albâtre, and wide sandy plains in theLanguedoc. Corsica lies off the Mediterranean coast. France has an extensive river system consisting of the four major rivers: theSeine, theLoire, theGaronne, theRhône and their tributaries, whose combined catchment includes over 62% of the metropolitan territory. The Rhône divides the Massif Central from the Alps and flows into the Mediterranean Sea at theCamargue. The Garonne meets theDordogne just afterBordeaux, forming theGironde estuary, the largest estuary in Western Europe which after approximately 100 kilometres (62 mi) empties into the Atlantic Ocean.[86] Other water courses drain towards theMeuse and Rhine along the northeastern borders. France has 11,000,000 km2 (4,200,000 sq mi) of marine waters within three oceans under its jurisdiction, of which 97% are overseas.
On June 28, 2019, inVérargues, the temperature reached 46 °C, setting a temperature record in Metropolitan France since records began.[87]Climate change means that this kind of heatwave in France can be expected to occur 10 times more frequently than it would have done a century ago.[88][89] France was one of the first countries to create an environment ministry, in 1971.[90] France is ranked19th by carbon dioxide emissions due to the country's heavy investment innuclear power following the1973 oil crisis,[91] which now accounts for 75 per cent of its electricity production[92] and results in less pollution.[93][94] According to the 2020Environmental Performance Index conducted byYale andColumbia, France was the fifth most environmentally conscious country in the world.[95][96] Like all European Union state members, France agreed to cut carbon emissions by at least 20% of 1990 levels by 2020.[97] As of 2009[update], carbon dioxide emissions per capita are lower than that of China.[98] The country was set to impose acarbon tax in 2009;[99] however, the plan was abandoned due to fears of it burdening French businesses.[100]
Forests account for 31 per cent of the land area—the fourth-highest proportion in Europe—representing an increase of 7 per cent since 1990.[101][102][103] The forests are some of the most diverse in Europe, comprising more than 140 species of trees.[104] France had a 2018Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.52/10, ranking it 123rd globally.[105] There are ninenational parks[106] and 46natural parks.[107] A regional nature park[108] (French:parc naturel régional or PNR) is a public establishment in France between local authorities and the national government covering an inhabited rural area of outstanding beauty, to protect the scenery and heritage as well as setting up sustainable economic development in the area.[109][110] As of 2019[update] there are 54 PNRs in France.[111]
France is arepresentative democracy organised as a unitarysemi-presidential republic.[112] Democratic traditions and values are deeply rooted in French culture, identity and politics.[113] TheConstitution of the Fifth Republic was approved byreferendum in 1958, establishing a framework consisting of executive, legislative and judicial branches.[114] It sought to address the instability of the Third and Fourth Republics by combining elements of both the parliamentary and presidential systems, while greatly strengthening the authority of the executive relative to the legislature.[113]
The legislature consists of the French Parliament, abicameral body made up of alower house, theNational Assembly and anupper house, theSenate.[119] Legislators in the National Assembly, known asdéputés, represent local constituencies and aredirectly elected for five-year terms.[120] The Assembly has the power to dismiss the government by majority vote. Senators are chosen by anelectoral college for six-year terms, with half the seats submitted to election every three years.[121] The Senate's legislative powers are limited; in the event of disagreement between the two chambers, the National Assembly has the final say.[122] The parliament is responsible for determining the rules and principles concerning most areas of law, political amnesty, and fiscal policy; however, the government may draft specific details concerning most laws.
The electorate is constitutionally empowered to vote on amendments passed by the Parliament and bills submitted by the president. Referendums have played a key role in shaping French politics and even foreign policy; voters have decided on such matters as Algeria's independence, the election of the president by popular vote, the formation of the EU, and the reduction of presidential term limits.[126]
Since 2016, France is divided into 18 administrative regions: 13 regions in metropolitan France (including Corsica),[127] and five overseas.[83] The regions are further subdivided into 101departments,[128] which are numbered mainly alphabetically. The department number is used in postal codes and was formerly used onvehicle registration plates. Among the 101 French departments, five (French Guiana, Guadeloupe,Martinique,Mayotte, andRéunion) are in overseas regions that are simultaneously overseas departments, enjoying the same status as metropolitan departments and are thereby included in the European Union.
The 101 departments are subdivided into 335arrondissements, which are, in turn, subdivided into 2,054cantons.[129] These cantons are divided into 36,658communes, which are municipalities with an elected municipal council.[129] Three communes—Paris, Lyon and Marseille—are subdivided into 45municipal arrondissements.
Overseas territories and collectivities
In addition to the 18 regions and 101 departments, the French Republic has five overseas collectivities (French Polynesia,Saint Barthélemy,Saint Martin,Saint Pierre and Miquelon, andWallis and Futuna), onesui generis collectivity (New Caledonia), oneoverseas territory (French Southern and Antarctic Lands), and one island possession in the Pacific Ocean (Clipperton Island). Overseas collectivities and territories form part of the French Republic but do not form part of the European Union or its fiscal area (except for Saint Barthélemy, which seceded from Guadeloupe in 2007). The Pacific Collectivities of French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna, and New Caledonia continue to use theCFP franc[130] whose value is strictly linked to the euro. The five overseas regions use the euro.[131]
France is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), but under PresidentCharles de Gaulle excluded itself from the joint military command in protest of theSpecial Relationship between the U.S. and UK, and to preserve the independence of French foreign and security policies. UnderNicolas Sarkozy, France rejoined the NATO joint military command.[143][144][145]
France retains strong political and economic influence in its former African colonies (Françafrique)[146] and has supplied economic aid and troops for peacekeeping missions inIvory Coast andChad.[147] From 2012 to 2021, France and other African states intervened in support of the Malian government in theMali War.
In 2017, France was the world's fourth-largest donor ofdevelopment aid in absolute terms.[148] This represents 0.43% of itsGNP.[149] Aid is provided by the governmentalFrench Development Agency, which finances primarily humanitarian projects insub-Saharan Africa,[150] with an emphasis on "developing infrastructure, access to health care and education, the implementation of appropriate economic policies and the consolidation of the rule of law and democracy".[150]
Military
The French Armed Forces (Forces armées françaises) are the military and paramilitary forces of France, under the president as commander-in-chief. They consist of theFrench Army (Armée de Terre), theFrench Navy (Marine Nationale, formerly calledArmée de Mer), theFrench Air and Space Force (Armée de l'Air et de l'Espace), and theNational Gendarmerie (Gendarmerie nationale), which serves as bothmilitary police and civil police in rural areas. Together they are among thelargest armed forces in the world and the largest in the EU. According to a 2015 study byCrédit Suisse, the French Armed Forces ranked as the world's sixth-most powerful military and the second most powerful in Europe.[151] France's annual military expenditure in 2023 was US$61.3 billion, or 2.1%of its GDP, making it the eighth biggest military spender in the world.[152] There has been no national conscription since 1997.[153]
France has major military industries and one of the largestaerospace sectors in the world.[156] The country has produced such equipment as theDassault Rafale fighter, theCharles de Gaulle aircraft carrier, theExocet missile, and theLeclerc tank, among others. France is a major arms seller,[157][158] with most of its arsenal's designs available for the export market, except for nuclear-powered devices. Weapons exported totalled 27 billion euros in 2022, up from 11.7 billion euros the previous year. TheUAE contributed more than 16 billion euros arms to the French total.[159] Among the largest French defence companies areDassault,Thales andSafran.[160]
France uses acivil legal system, wherein law arises primarily from written statutes;[83] judges are not to make law, but merely to interpret it (though the amount of judicial interpretation in certain areas makes it equivalent tocase law in acommon law system). Basic principles of therule of law were laid in theNapoleonic Code (which was largely based on royal law codified under King Louis XIV). In agreement with the principles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the law should only prohibit actions detrimental to society.
French law is divided into two principal areas:private law andpublic law. Private law includes, in particular,civil law andcriminal law. Public law includes, in particular,administrative law andconstitutional law. However, in practical terms, French law comprises three principal areas of law: civil law, criminal law, and administrative law. Criminal laws can only address the future and not the past (criminalex post facto laws are prohibited).[164] While administrative law is often a subcategory of civil law in many countries, it is completely separated in France and each body of law is headed by a specific supreme court:ordinary courts (which handle criminal and civil litigation) are headed by theCourt of Cassation and administrative courts are headed by theCouncil of State. To be applicable, every law must be officially published in theJournal officiel de la République française.
France does not recognisereligious law as a motivation for the enactment of prohibitions; it has long abolishedblasphemy laws andsodomy laws. However, "offences against publicdecency" ordisturbing public order have been used to repress public expressions of homosexuality or street prostitution.[citation needed]
The economy is highly diversified; services represent two-thirds of both the workforce and GDP,[178] while the industrial sector accounts for a fifth of GDP and a similar proportion of employment. France is the third-biggest manufacturing country in Europe, behind Germany and Italy, and rankseighth in the world by manufacturing output, at 1.9 per cent.[179] Less than 2 per cent of GDP is generated by the primary sector, namely agriculture;[180] the agricultural sector is among the largest in value and leads the EU in overall production.[181]
In 2018 France was thefifth-largest trading nation and second-largest in Europe, with the value of exports representing over a fifth of GDP.[182] Its membership in theeurozone and the broaderEuropean single market facilitates access to capital, goods, services, and skilled labour.[183] Despiteprotectionist policies over certain industries, particularly in agriculture, France has generally played a leading role in fostering free trade and commercial integration in Europe to enhance its economy.[184][185] In 2019, it ranked first in Europe and13th in the world inforeign direct investment, with European countries and the United States being leading sources.[186] According to theBank of France (founded in 1800),[187] the leading recipients of foreign direct investment are manufacturing, real estate, finance and insurance.[188] TheParis Region has the highest concentration of multinational firms in mainland Europe.[188]
Under the doctrine ofdirigisme, the government historically played a major role in the economy; policies such asindicative planning andnationalisation are credited for contributing to three decades of unprecedented postwar economic growth known asTrente Glorieuses. At its peak in 1982, the public sector accounted for one-fifth of industrial employment and over four-fifths of the credit market. Beginning in the late 20th century, regulations and state involvement in the economy were loosened, with most leading companies becoming privately owned; state ownership still dominates transportation, defence and broadcasting.[189] Policies aimed at promoting economic dynamism and privatisation have improved France's economic standing globally: it is among the world's 10 most innovative countries in the 2020Bloomberg Innovation Index,[190] and the 15th most competitive, according to the 2019Global Competitiveness Report.[191]
TheParis stock exchange is one of the oldest in the world, created in 1724.[192] Some examples of the most valuable French companies includeLVMH,L'Oréal andSociéte Générale.[193] France has historically been one of the world's major agricultural centres and remains a "global agricultural powerhouse"; France is the world's sixth-biggest exporter of agricultural products, generating a trade surplus of over €7.4 billion.[194][195] Nicknamed "the granary of the old continent",[196] over half its total land area is farmland, of which 45 per cent is devoted to permanent field crops such as cereals. The country's diverse climate, extensive arable land, modern farming technology, andEU subsidies have made it Europe's leading agricultural producer and exporter.[197]
France has 52 sites inscribed inUNESCO's World Heritage List and features cities of high cultural interest, beaches and seaside resorts, ski resorts, as well as rural regions that many enjoy for their beauty and tranquillity (green tourism). Small and picturesque villages are promoted through the associationLes Plus Beaux Villages de France (literally "The Most Beautiful Villages of France"). The "Remarkable Gardens" label is a list of the over 200 gardens classified by theMinistry of Culture. This label is intended to protect and promote remarkable gardens and parks. France attracts many religiouspilgrims on theirway to St. James or toLourdes, a town in theHautes-Pyrénées that hosts several million visitors a year.
France is the world's tenth-largest producer of electricity.[206]Électricité de France (EDF), which is majority-owned by the French government, is the country's main producer and distributor of electricity and one of the world's largestelectric utility companies, ranking third in revenue globally.[207] In 2018, EDF produced roughly one-fifth of the EU's electricity, primarily fromnuclear power.[208] In 2021, France was the biggest energy exporter in Europe, mostly to the UK and Italy,[209] and the largest net exporter of electricity in the world.[209]
Since the1973 oil crisis, France has pursued a strong policy ofenergy security,[209] namely throughheavy investment in nuclear energy. It is one of 32 countries withnuclear power plants, ranking second in the world by thenumber of operational nuclear reactors at 56.[210] Consequently, 70% of its electricity is generated by nuclear power, the highest proportion in the world by a wide margin;[211] only Slovakia and Ukraine also derive a majority of electricity from nuclear power, at roughly 53% and 51%, respectively.[212] France is considered a world leader in nuclear technology, with reactors and fuel products being major exports.[209]
The significant reliance on nuclear power has resulted in comparatively sloweradoption of renewable energy relative to other Western nations. Nevertheless, between 2008 and 2019, its production capacity from renewable energies rose consistently and nearly doubled.[213]Hydropower is by far the leading source, accounting for over half of renewable energy sources[214] and contributing 13% of its electricity[213] the third highest proportion in Europe.[214] Most hydroelectric plants, such asEguzon,Étang de Soulcem, andLac de Vouglans, are managed by EDF.[214] France aims to further expand hydropower into 2040.[213]
Therailway network in France stretches 29,473 kilometres (18,314 mi) as of 2008[216] and is the second most extensive in Western Europe afterGermany's.[217] It is operated by theSNCF, and high-speed trains includeThalys,Eurostar andTGV, which travels at 320 km/h (199 mph).[218] Eurostar andLeShuttle connect with the United Kingdom through theChannel Tunnel. Rail connections exist to all other neighbouring countries in Europe except Andorra. Intra-urban connections are also well developed, with most major cities havingunderground or tramway services complementing bus services.
There are approximately 1,027,183 kilometres (638,262 mi) of serviceable roadway, ranking it the most extensive network of the European continent.[219] The Paris Region is enveloped with a dense network of roads and highways, which connect it with virtually all parts of the country. Roads also handle substantial international traffic, connecting with cities in neighbouring countries. There is no annual registration fee orroad tax; usage of the mostly privately-owned motorways is through tolls except in the vicinity of large communes. The new car market is dominated by domestic brands such asRenault,Peugeot andCitroën.[220] France possesses theMillau Viaduct, the world's tallest bridge,[221] and has built many important bridges such as thePont de Normandie. Diesel and petrol-driven cars and lorries cause a large part of the country's air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.[222][223]
There are 464airports in France.[83]Charles de Gaulle Airport, located in the vicinity of Paris, is the largest and busiest airport in the country, handling the vast majority of popular and commercial traffic and connecting Paris with virtually all major cities across the world.Air France is the national carrier airline, although numerous private airline companies provide domestic and international travel services. There are ten major ports, the largest of which is inMarseille,[224] which also is the largest bordering the Mediterranean Sea.[225] 12,261 kilometres (7,619 mi) of waterways traverse France including theCanal du Midi, which connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean through theGaronne river.[83]
With an estimated population of 68,605,616 people,[6][j] France is the20th most populous country in the world, the third-most populous in Europe, and the second most populous in the European Union. For much of the 21st century, France has been an outlier among developed countries, particularly in Europe, for its relatively high rate ofnatural population growth; by birth rates alone, it was responsible for almost all natural population growth in the EU in 2006.[226] Between 2006 and 2016, France saw the second-highest overall increase in population in the EU and was one of four EU countries where natural births accounted for the most population growth.[227] This was the highest rate since the end of thebaby boom in 1973 and coincides with the rise in thetotal fertility rate from a nadir of 1.7 in 1994 to 2.0 in 2010.
Since 2011, the fertility rate has been steadily declining;[228] it stood at 1.79 per woman in 2023,[229] below thereplacement rate of 2.1 and well below the high of 4.41 in 1800.[230][231][232] Fertility rate and crudebirth rate nonetheless remain the highest in the EU[233] and among the highest in Europe overall, where the average is 1.5.[234] The mean age of French women at the birth of their first child was 29.1, slightly younger than the EU average of 29.7.[233]
Like many developed nations, thepopulation is aging: The average age is 41.7 years, while roughly one-fifth of French people are 65 or over.[235] It is projected that one in three French will be over 60 by 2024. Life expectancy at birth is 82.7 years, the12th highest in the world; French Polynesia and Réunion ranked fourth and 11th in life expectancy, at 84.07 years and 83.55, respectively.
From 2006 to 2011, population growth averaged 0.6 percent per year;[236] since 2011, annual growth has been between 0.4 and 0.5 percent annually,[237] and France is projected to continue growing until 2044.[238] Immigrants are major contributors to this trend; in 2010, roughly one in four newborns (27 percent) in Metropolitan France had at least oneforeign-born parent, and another 24 percent had at least one parent born outside Europe (excluding French overseas territories).[239] In 2021, the share of children of foreign-born mothers was 23 percent.[233]
France is a highly urbanised country, with itslargest cities (in terms ofmetropolitan area population in 2021[240]) being Paris (13,171,056 inh.),Lyon (2,308,818),Marseille (1,888,788),Lille (1,521,660),Toulouse (1,490,640),Bordeaux (1,393,764),Nantes (1,031,953),Strasbourg (864,993),Montpellier (823,120), andRennes (771,320). (Note: since its 2020 revision of metropolitan area borders,INSEE considers thatNice is a metropolitan area separate from theCannes-Antibes metropolitan area; these two combined would have a population of 1,019,905, as of the 2021 census).Rural flight was a perennial political issue throughout most of the 20th century.
Historically,French people were mainly ofCeltic-Gallic origin, with a significant admixture ofItalic (Romans) andGermanic (Franks) groups reflecting centuries of respective migration and settlement.[241] Through the course of the Middle Ages, France incorporated various neighbouring ethnic and linguistic groups, as evidenced byBreton elements in the west,Aquitanian in the southwest,Scandinavian in the northwest,Alemannic in the northeast, andLigurian in the southeast.
Large-scale immigration over the last century and a half have led to a more multicultural society; beginning with the French Revolution and further codified in the French Constitution of 1958, the government is prohibited from collecting data on ethnicity and ancestry; most demographic information is drawn from private sector organisations or academic institutions. In 2004 theInstitut Montaigne estimated that within Metropolitan France, 51 million people were white (85% of the population), 6 million were northwest African (10%), 2 million were black (3.3%), and 1 million were Asian (1.7%).[242][243]
It is estimated that 40% of the French population is descended at least partially from the different waves of immigration since the early 20th century;[254] between 1921 and 1935 alone, about 1.1 million net immigrants came to France.[255] The next largest wave came in the 1960s when around 1.6 millionpieds-noirs returned to France following the independence of its northwest African possessions of Algeria and Morocco.[256][257] They were joined by numerous former colonial subjects from North and West Africa, as well as numerous European immigrants from Spain and Portugal.
France remains a major destination for immigrants, accepting about 200,000 legal immigrants annually.[258] In 2005, it was Western Europe's leading recipient of asylum seekers, with an estimated 50,000 applications (albeit a 15% decrease from 2004).[259] In 2010, France received about 48,100 asylum applications—placing it among the top five asylum recipients in the world.[260] In subsequent years it saw the number of applications increase, ultimately doubling to 100,412 in 2017.[261] The European Union allows free movement between the member states, although France established controls to curb Eastern European migration. Foreigners' rights are established in theCode of Entry and Residence of Foreigners and of the Right to Asylum. Immigration remains a contentious political issue.[262]
In 2008 INSEE estimated that the number of foreign-born immigrants was around 5 million (8% of the population), while their French-born descendants numbered 6.5 million, or 11% of the population. Thus, nearly a fifth of the country's population were either first or second-generation immigrants, of which more than 5 million were of European origin and 4 million ofMaghrebi ancestry.[263][264][265] In 2008, Francegranted citizenship to 137,000 persons, mostly from Morocco, Algeria and Turkey.[266] In 2022, more than 320,000 migrants came to France, with the majority coming fromAfrica.[267]
In 2014, the INSEE reported a significant increase in the number of immigrants coming from Spain, Portugal and Italy between 2009 and 2012. According to the institute, this increase resulted from the2008 financial crisis.[268] Statistics on Spanish immigrants in France show a growth of 107 per cent between 2009 and 2012, with the population growing from 5,300 to 11,000.[268] Of the total of 229,000 foreigners coming to France in 2012, nearly 8% were Portuguese, 5% British, 5% Spanish, 4% Italian, 4% German, 3% Romanian, and 3% Belgian.[268]
The official language is French,[269] aRomance language derived fromLatin. Since 1635, theAcadémie Française has been the official authority on the French language, although its recommendations carry no legal weight. There are also regional languages spoken in France, such asOccitan,Breton,Catalan,Flemish (Dutch dialect),Alsatian (German dialect),Basque, andCorsican (Italian dialect). Italian was the official language of Corsica up to 1859.[270] Although regional languages do not have the status of official languages, they are recognised by Article 75-1 of the constitution as part of France's heritage.[271]
The government does not regulate the choice of language in publications by individuals, but the use of French is required by law in commercial and workplace communications. The French government tries to promote French in the EU and globally through institutions such as theOrganisation internationale de la Francophonie. There are 77 vernacular minority languages, eight spoken in Metropolitan France and 69 in the overseas territories.
According to the 2007 Adult Education survey, part of a project by the European Union and carried out in France by INSEE and based on a sample of 15,350 persons, French is the native language of 87% of the population, or roughly 56 million people, followed by Arabic (3.6%, 2.3 million), Portuguese (1.5%, 960,000), Spanish (1.2%, 770,000) and Italian (1.0%, 640,000).[272]
Catholicism has been the main religion in France for more than a millennium, and it was once thestate religion.[275] Its role nowadays has been greatly reduced; nevertheless in 2012, among the 47,000 religious buildings in France, 94% were Catholic churches.[276] The government is prohibited from recognising specific rights to any religious community (with the exception of legacy statutes like those of military chaplains and the aforementioned local law in Alsace-Moselle). It recognises religious organisations according to formal legal criteria that do not address religious doctrine, and religious organisations are expected to refrain from intervening in policymaking.[277] Some religious groups, such asscientology, theChildren of God, theUnification Church, and theOrder of the Solar Temple, are consideredcults (sectes in French) and are not granted the same status as recognised religions.[278]
TheFrench health care system is one ofuniversal health care largely financed by governmentnational health insurance. In its 2000 assessment of world health care systems, theWorld Health Organization (WHO) found that France provided the "close to best overall health care" in the world.[280] The French health care system was ranked first worldwide by the WHO in 1997.[281][282] In 2011, France spent 11.6% of its GDP on health care, or US$4,086 per capita,[283] a figure much higher than the average spent by countries in Europe. Approximately 77% of health expenditures are covered by government-funded agencies.[284]
Care is generally free for people affected by chronic diseases such as cancer, AIDS or cystic fibrosis. Thelife expectancy at birth is 80 years for men and 85.6 years for women.[285][286] There are 3.2 physicians for every 1000 inhabitants, 5.7 hospital beds for every 1000 inhabitants, and average health care spending per capita was US$8,630 in 2022, representing 12.1% of GDP.[287][288] As of 2007[update], approximately 140,000 inhabitants (0.4%) are living with HIV/AIDS.[83]
In 1802, Napoleon created thelycée, the second and final stage of secondary education that prepares students for higher education studies or a profession.[290]Jules Ferry is considered the father of the French modern school, leading reforms in the late 19th century that established free, secular and compulsory education (currently mandatory to age 16).[291][292]
French education is centralised and divided into three stages: primary, secondary, and higher education. TheProgramme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, ranked France's education as near the OECD average in 2018.[293][294] School children in France reported greater concern about the disciplinary climate and behaviour in classrooms compared to other OECD countries.[294]
At the beginning of the 20th century,Cubism was developed byGeorges Braque and the Spanish painterPablo Picasso, who was living in Paris.[300] Other foreign artists also settled and worked in or near Paris, such asVincent van Gogh andWassily Kandinsky.[301][302] In the early 20th century and in particular during the interwar period, a loose collection of foreign artists of whom many were Jewish formed theSchool of Paris. Amongst these artists wereMarc Chagall,Amedeo Modigliani,Yitzhak Frenel,Jules Pascin and others.[303] The Second World War led to the deaths or exile of multiple artists, resulting in the relative fall of Paris' domination and centrality in the world art scene in favour of New York City.[304]
Gothic architecture, originally namedOpus Francigenum meaning "French work",[305] was born inÎle-de-France and was the first French style of architecture to be imitated throughout Europe.[306] Northern France is the home of some of the most important Gothic cathedrals and basilicas, the first of these being theSaint Denis Basilica (used as the royal necropolis); other important French Gothic cathedrals areNotre-Dame de Chartres andNotre-Dame d'Amiens. The kings were crowned in another important Gothic church:Notre-Dame de Reims.[307]
The final victory in the Hundred Years' War marked an important stage in the evolution of French architecture. It was the time of theFrench Renaissance and several artists from Italy were invited to the French court; many residential palaces were built in theLoire Valley, from 1450 as a first reference theChâteau de Montsoreau.[308] Examples of such residential castles include theChâteau de Chambord, theChâteau de Chenonceau, or theChâteau d'Amboise.
Following the Renaissance and the end of the Middle Ages,Baroque architecture replaced the traditional Gothic style. Baroque architecture found greater success in the secular domain than in the religious one.[309] In the secular domain, thePalace of Versailles has many Baroque features.Jules Hardouin Mansart, who designed the extensions to Versailles, was one of the most influential French architects of the Baroque era; he is famous for his dome atLes Invalides.[310] Some of the most impressive provincial Baroque architecture is found in places that were not yet French such asPlace Stanislas inNancy. On the military architectural side,Vauban designed some of the most efficient fortresses in Europe and became an influential military architect; as a result, imitations of his works can be found all over Europe, the Americas, Russia and Turkey.[311][312]
In the 20th century, French-Swiss architectLe Corbusier designed several buildings in France. More recently, French architects have combined both modern and old architectural styles. TheLouvre Pyramid is an example of modern architecture added to an older building. The most difficult buildings to integrate within French cities are skyscrapers, as they are visible from afar. For instance, in Paris since 1977, new buildings had to be under 37 metres (121 ft).[314] A significant number of skyscrapers are located in theLa Défense financial district.[315] Other massive buildings that are a challenge to integrate into their environment are large bridges; an example of the way this has been done is theMillau Viaduct. Some famous modern French architects includeJean Nouvel,Dominique Perrault,Christian de Portzamparc andPaul Andreu.
In the early 20th century France was a haven for literary freedom.[322] Works banned for obscenity in the US, the UK and other Anglophone nations were published in France decades before they were available in the respective authors' home countries.[322] The French were disinclined to punish literary figures for their writing, and prosecutions were rare.[322] Important writers of the 20th century includeMarcel Proust,Louis-Ferdinand Céline,Jean Cocteau,Albert Camus, andJean-Paul Sartre.Antoine de Saint-Exupéry wroteThe Little Prince, which is one of the best selling books in history.[323][324]
France has historical and strong links withcinema, with two Frenchmen, Auguste and Louis Lumière (known as theLumière Brothers) credited with creating cinema in 1895.[345] The world's first female filmmaker,Alice Guy-Blaché, was also from France.[346] Several important cinematic movements, including the late 1950s and 1960sNouvelle Vague, began in the country. It is noted for having a strong film industry, due in part to protections afforded by the government. France remains a leader in filmmaking, as of 2015[update] producing more films than any other European country.[347][348] The nation also hosts theCannes Festival, one of the most important and famous film festivals in the world.[349][350]
Apart from its strong and innovative film tradition, France has also been a gathering spot for artists from across Europe and the world. For this reason, French cinema is sometimes intertwined with the cinema of foreign nations. Directors from nations such as Poland (Roman Polanski,Krzysztof Kieślowski,Andrzej Żuławski), Argentina (Gaspar Noé,Edgardo Cozarinsky), Russia (Alexandre Alexeieff,Anatole Litvak), Austria (Michael Haneke) and Georgia (Géla Babluani,Otar Iosseliani) are prominent in the ranks of French cinema. Conversely, French directors have had prolific and influential careers in other countries, such asLuc Besson,Jacques Tourneur orFrancis Veber in theUnited States. Although the French film market is dominated by Hollywood, France is the only nation in the world where American films make up the smallest share of total film revenues, at 50%, compared with 77% in Germany and 69% in Japan.[351] French films account for 35% of the total film revenues of France, which is the highest percentage of national film revenues in the developed world outside the United States, compared to 14% in Spain and 8% in the UK.[351] In 2013, France was the second-largest exporter of films in the world, after the United States.[352]
As part of its advocacy ofcultural exception, a political concept of treating culture differently from other commercial products,[353] France succeeded in convincing all EU members to refuse to include culture and audiovisuals in the list of liberalised sectors of the WTO in 1993.[354] This decision was confirmed in a vote byUNESCO in 2005.[355]
Fashion has been an important industry and cultural export of France since the 17th century, and modern "haute couture" originated in Paris in the 1860s. Today, Paris, along with London, Milan, and New York City, is considered one of the world'sfashion capitals, and the city is home or headquarters to many of the premier fashion houses. The expression Haute couture is, in France, a legally protected name, guaranteeing certain quality standards.
The association of France with fashion and style (French:la mode) dates largely to the reign ofLouis XIV.[356] France renewed its dominance of the high fashion (French:coutureor haute couture) industry in the years 1860–1960 through the establishment of the greatcouturier houses such asChanel,Dior, andGivenchy. The French perfume industry is the world leader in its sector and is centred on the town ofGrasse.[357]
According to 2017 data compiled byDeloitte,Louis Vuitton Moet Hennessey (LVMH), a French brand, is the largest luxury company in the world by sales, selling more than twice the amount of its nearest competitor.[358] Moreover, France also possesses 3 of the top 10 luxury goods companies by sales (LVMH,Kering SA,L'Oréal), more than any other country in the world.[358]
The most influential news magazines are the left-wingLe Nouvel Observateur, centristL'Express and right-wingLe Point (in 2009 more than 400,000 copies),[362] but the highest circulation numbers for weeklies are attained by TV magazines and by women's magazines, among themMarie Claire andELLE, which have foreign versions. Influential weeklies also include investigative and satirical papersLe Canard Enchaîné andCharlie Hebdo, as well asParis Match. As in most industrialised nations, the print media have been affected by asevere crisis with the rise of the internet. In 2008, the government launched a major initiative to help the sector reform and become financially independent,[363][364] but in 2009 it had to give €600,000 to help the print media cope with the2008 financial crisis, in addition to existing subsidies.[365]In 1974, after years of centralised monopoly on radio and television, the governmental agencyORTF was split into several national institutions, but the three already-existing TV channels and four national radio stations[366][367] remained under state control. It was only in 1981 that the government allowed free broadcasting in the territory.[367]
French wines are usually made to accompany French cuisine.
Different regions have different styles. In the north, butter and cream are common ingredients, whereasolive oil is more commonly used in the south.[368] Each region of France has traditional specialties:cassoulet in the southwest,choucroute in Alsace,quiche in theLorraine region,beef bourguignon inBurgundy,Provençaltapenade, etc. France is most famous for itswines[369] andcheeses, which are often named for the territory where they are produced (AOC).[370][371] A meal typically consists of three courses,entrée ('starter'),plat principal ('main course'), andfromage ('cheese') ordessert, sometimes with a salad served before the cheese or dessert.
French cuisine is also regarded as a key element of thequality of life and the attractiveness of France. A French publication, theMichelin Guide, awardsMichelin stars for excellence to a select few establishments.[372][373] The acquisition or loss of a star can have dramatic effects on the success of a restaurant. By 2006, theMichelin Guide had awarded 620 stars to French restaurants.[374]
In addition to its wine tradition, France is also a major producer of beer and rum. The three main French brewing regions are Alsace (60% of national production), Nord-Pas-de-Calais, and Lorraine.French rum is made in distilleries on islands in the Atlantic and Indian oceans.[375][376]
The French Open, also called Roland-Garros, is a majortennis tournament held over two weeks between late May and early June at theStade Roland-Garros in Paris. It is the premier clay court tennis championship event in the world and the second of four annualGrand Slam tournaments.[391]
^Rouche, Michel (1987). "The Early Middle Ages in the West". In Veyne, Paul (ed.).A History of Private Life: From Pagan Rome to Byzantium. Belknap Press. p. 425.ISBN978-0-674-39974-7.OCLC59830199.
^abcJean Carpentier (dir.), François Lebrun (dir.), Alain Tranoy, Élisabeth Carpentier et Jean-Marie Mayeur (préface de Jacques Le Goff), Histoire de France, Points Seuil, coll. " Histoire ", Paris, 2000 (1re éd. 1987), p. 17.ISBN978-2-02-010879-9.
^Micheal Clodfelter,Warfare and armed conflicts: a statistical encyclopedia of casualty and other figures, 1492–2015 (McFarland, 2017) p.40
^Tilly, Charles (1985). "War making and state making as organized crime," in Bringing the State Back In, eds P.B. Evans, D. Rueschemeyer, & T. Skocpol. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. p. 174.
^Cécil Vidal (May 2021)."Slave trade".bnf.fr.Archived from the original on 24 January 2023. Retrieved24 January 2023.
^Acemoglu, Daron; Caroni, Davide; Johnson, Simon; Robinson, James A. (April 2009),The Consequences of Radical Reform: The French Revolution(PDF), NBER Working Paper Series, Cambridge, Massachusetts: National Bureau of Economic Research, retrieved23 July 2025
^Noir sur Blanc: Les premières photos du camp de concentration de Buchenwald après la libération,"Archived copy"(PDF). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 9 November 2014. Retrieved14 October 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) (French)
^abMarie-Christine Weidmann-Koop, Rosalie Vermette, "France at the dawn of the twenty-first century, trends and transformations",p. 160
^Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Michael J. Balz, "The October Riots in France: A Failed Immigration Policy or the Empire Strikes Back?"International Migration (2006) 44#2 pp. 23–34.
^"French policies provoke terrorist attacks".The Matador. 14 December 2015.Archived from the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved18 May 2024.;Goodliffe, Gabriel; Brizzi, Riccardo, eds. (2015).France After 2012. Berghahn Books.
^"Field Listing :: Area".The World Factbook. CIA. Archived fromthe original on 31 January 2014. Retrieved1 November 2015. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
^Eia (10 September 2010) [First published: 23 April 2010]."Energy profile of France". In Cleveland, Cutler J. (ed.).Encyclopedia of Earth. Topic editor: Langdon D. Clough. Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment. Archived fromthe original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved17 July 2011.
^"The regional nature Parks of France"(PDF). Fédération des Parcs naturels régionaux de France [Federation of the regional nature Parks of France]. 22 July 2013. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 22 July 2013. Retrieved22 June 2014.
^Lafferty, William M. (2001).Sustainable communities in Europe. Earthscan. p. 181.ISBN978-1-85383-791-3.
^"84 États et gouvernements" [84 states and governments]. Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. Archived fromthe original on 3 October 2009. Retrieved22 July 2010.
^Tian, Nan; Lopes Da Silva, Diego; Liang, Xiao; Scarazzato, Lorenzo (April 2024)."Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2023".Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Retrieved5 February 2025.
^Gadault, Thierry (13 June 2002)."La France demeure un fournisseur d'armes de premier plan" [France stays one of the biggest arms supplier]].L'express (in French). Archived fromthe original on 11 March 2012.En 2001, la France a vendu pour 1,288 milliard de dollars d'équipements militaires, ce qui la met au troisième rang mondial des exportateurs derrière les États-Unis et la Russie. [In 2001, France sold $1,288 billion of military equipment, ranking 3rd in the world for arms exportations behind the USA and Russia
^"Les ventes d'armes explosent en 2009" [Sales of weapons explode in 2009].20 minutes (in French). 8 February 2010.Archived from the original on 7 December 2016. Retrieved6 January 2017.La France est au 4ème rang mondial des exportateurs d'armes, derrière les Etats-Unis, le Royaume-Uni et la Russie, et devant Israël, selon un rapport du ministère de la Défense publié l'an dernier. [France is 4th biggest arms exporter, behind the United States, the United Kingdom and Russia, and ahead of Israel, according to a report of the Ministry of Defense published a year ago.]
^In European countries, legal doctrine has long faced the question of succession of criminal laws in time:Buonomo, Giampiero (2015). "La rivendicazione di Gallo".Mondoperaio Edizione Online.
^"France: Strict Defamation and Privacy Laws Limit Free Expression – Index on Censorship| Index on Censorship." France: Strict Defamation and Privacy Laws Limit Free Expression – Index on Censorship| Index on Censorship. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 February 2014."France: Strict defamation and privacy laws limit free expression – Index on Censorship". Archived fromthe original on 22 September 2013. Retrieved18 February 2014.
^"Key figures of the French economy".France Diplomatie.French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs.Archived from the original on 14 January 2010.France is the world's fifth largest exporter of goods (mainly durables). The country ranks fourth in services and third in agriculture (especially in cereals and the agri-food sector). It is the leading producer and exporter of farm products in Europe.
^"France".IAEA | PRIS Power Reactor Information System. International Atomic Energy Agency.Archived from the original on 1 July 2018. Retrieved8 January 2018.
^Oppenheimer, David B. (2008). "Why France needs to collect data on racial identity...in a French way".Hastings International and Comparative Law Review.31 (2):735–752.SSRN1236362.
^"Les personnes d'origine maghrébine y sont également au nombre de 5 à 6 millions; 3,5 millions ont la nationalité française (don't 500 000 harkis)", Évelyne Perrin,Identité Nationale, Amer Ministère, L'Harmattan, 2010, p. 112.ISBN978-2-296-10839-4.
^Hassell, James E. (1991). "III. French Government and the Refugees".Russian Refugees in France and the United States Between the World Wars. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. 81/7. American Philosophical Society. p. 22.ISBN978-0-87169-817-9.
^Catherine Borrel; Bertrand Lhommeau (30 March 2010)."Être né en France d'un parent immigré" [To be born in France of an immigrant parent] (in French). Insee.Archived from the original on 3 February 2012.
^Wolf, John Baptiste Wolf (1962).The Emergence of European Civilization: From the Middle Ages to the Opening of the Nineteenth Century. University of Virginia Press. p. 419.ISBN9789733203162.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^"Observatoire du patrimoine religieux". 1 February 2012. Archived fromthe original on 26 November 2013.94% des édifices sont catholiques (dont 50% églises paroissiales, 25% chapelles, 25% édifices appartenant au clergé régulier)
^Nieszawer, Nadine (2020).Histoire des Artistes Juifs de l'École de Paris: Stories of Jewish Artists of the School of Paris (in French). France.ISBN979-8633355567.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^(in French) Claude Lébedel – Les Splendeurs du Baroque en France:Histoire et splendeurs du baroque en France page 9: "Si en allant plus loin, on prononce les mots 'art baroque en France', on provoque alors le plus souvent une moue interrogative, parfois seulement étonnée, parfois franchement réprobatrice: Mais voyons, l'art baroque n'existe pas en France!"
^Bauschatz, Cathleen M. (2003). "Rabelais and Marguerite de Navarre on Sixteenth-Century Views of Clandestine Marriage".Sixteenth Century Journal.34 (2):395–408.doi:10.2307/20061415.JSTOR20061415.S2CID163972746.
^"Montaigne". Humanistictexts.org. Archived fromthe original on 25 May 2011. Retrieved22 July 2011.
^Girdlestone, Cuthbert (1969). Jean-Philippe Rameau: His Life and Work (paperback ed.). Dover. p. 14: "It is customary to couple him with Couperin as one couples Haydn with Mozart or Ravel with Debussy."
^"100人の偉大なアーティスト - No. 62" [The 100 Greatest Artists – No. 62].ローチケHMV [Roachke HMV] (in Japanese). 21 April 2003.
^"Biography of Noir Désir".rfi Music.RFI Musique. December 2010. Archived fromthe original on 30 April 2016. Retrieved11 January 2018.Rock music doesn't come naturally to the French. A Latin country, with more affinity to poetry and melody, France has very rarely produced talented rock musicians. Rock music has other, more Anglo-Saxon ingredients: fury, excess, electricity.
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