TheFourth Dynasty ofancient Egypt (notatedDynasty IV) is characterized as a "golden age" of theOld Kingdom of Egypt. Dynasty IV lasted fromc. 2613 to c. 2498 BC.[1] It was a time of peace and prosperity as well as one during which trade with other countries is officially documented.
The Fourth Dynasty heralded the height of thepyramid-building age. The peaceful rule of theThird Dynasty allowed artistic expressions to flourish.[2] Building experiments done by KingSneferu led to the evolution ofmastaba tombs into the smooth-sided pyramids like those seen on theGiza Plateau. No other period in Egyptian history equaled the accomplishments achieved during the Fourth Dynasty.[3]
TheRed Pyramid of Sneferu,Dahshur, Egypt's first "true" smooth-sided pyramid
Sneferu, lauded as "Bringer of Beauty", "Master of All Justice", and "Ruler of Lower and Upper Nile", was the first pharaoh of the fourth dynasty. He descended from a family in Middle Egypt that lived near the city ofHermopolis, and most likely ascended to the throne by marrying a royal heiress. There is still debate as to who his father was, with the credit often being given toHuni, but this cannot be confirmed due to the break in dynasties. His mother,Meresankh I was either a lesser wife or concubine of Huni.
Until his reign, Egyptian kings were thought to be worldly incarnations ofHorus, obtaining total deification exclusively in death. Sneferu was the first king to proclaim that he was the embodiment of Ra, a sun deity.
Sneferu built theBent Pyramid, imitating KingDjoser'stomb, approximately 150 years later.[4] TheRed Pyramid is considered to be the first of the "true" pyramids built by Sneferu and earned the name due to its red coloration from the limestone used. Sneferu is attributed to constructing theMeidum pyramid, likely for the last king of the Third Dynasty, Huni.
Sneferu may also be responsible for a series of pyramids built inSelia, though no evidence dictates exactly who built them. He did commission a total of three pyramids during his reign.
Many of Snerferu's political expeditions were to other countries to secure two things: a substantial labor force, throughslavery, and access to a large store of building materials. He frequently traveled to Nubia, and Libya for these. The excursions into Nubia, and Libya allowed an extensive labor force to accumulate requiring vast amounts of food sources in order to maintain.
Khufu, known to the Greek as Cheops, and Sneferu's successor—though it is unclear whether he was the biological son ofSneferu—was a widely known king. He is still known very well in present-day media, being featured in movies, novels, and television shows. His fame stems from his pyramid on the northeastern plateau atGiza, where he was buried. His mortuary temple was built on the northern end of the pyramid, which is no longer accessible due to grave robbers ravaging the area.
Only three-dimensional reliefs have been recovered and have lasted into modern day, including many limestone busts and clay figurines. Khufu's activities in and out of Egypt are not well documented, with the exception of his architecture. The Ancient Greeks remain some of the only texts referencing Khufu, through which they viewed him as a cruel and wicked man who offended the deities and forced his subjects into slavery.[5]
Khufu, as the son of Sneferu, was believed to be illegitimate and therefore unworthy of the throne. Even if he was Sneferu's true son. He did very little to expand the country ofEgypt and failed to follow his father's footsteps of territorial gains.
Djedefre is credited by historians with a reign of eight years. Not much is known of Djedefre, including his inconclusive lineage. It is possible that he isKhufu's son or that he wasKhufu's brother. It is widely suggested that he is the son of a lesser queen who murdered the rightful heir to the throne and Djedefre's half brother, the crown princeKawab.
Djedefre chose to build his pyramid several kilometers north of Giza, creating speculation that there was a family feud that caused him to want to be far away from Khufu's tomb. A more favorable conclusion was that Djedefre chose to be buried closer toIunu, the center of the cult of Ra.
His pyramid also features a statue of his wife,Hetepheres II, in the form of a sphinx. She was a daughter of Khufu and had been the wife of Kawab. It is sometimes suggested that this was the first true sphinx, although there is debate about the sphinx at Giza that was credited to Khafre. She became the longest living royal member of the dynasty, living into the reign of Shepseskaf.
Khafre, son of Khufu, succeeded his supposed brother,Djedefre, after his short reign. He chose to build his pyramid close to his father, matching it in style and being almost as large. At the front of the pyramid causeway lies theGreat Sphinx that is said to bear his features. There is still debate on whether his Sphinx was erected before Djedefre's.[6] Khafre's sphinx was well-known and closer to his subjects, making it harder to determine which was built first due to biased record keeping.
Khafre built the most amount of statues for Dynasty IV, leading to greater evidence of his 25 year long rule. He did cause controversy however, with hisstatue depicting his ties still to the god Horus, rather than Ra.[7]
Menkaure succeeded his father, Khafre, as King of Egypt. Menkaure is consistently depicted in his statuary as being around the personifications of deities, andnomes.
His pyramid is the third and smallest of those atGiza pyramid complex and is known asNetjer-er-Menkaure, which translates into "Menkaure is Divine". There was a sarcophagus found within the pyramid, that is approximately eight feet in length and three feet in height, made of basalt.
Shepseskaf is generally accepted as the last king of the Fourth Dynasty, succeeding Menkaure. There is no conclusive evidence of who his mother is, though it is believed that he was the son of a minor queen. Who his wife was also is unknown.It is also uncertain of his relationship to Menkaure, and if he was a son or brother.
Shepseskaf broke the chain of pyramid building by the previous five kings. Instead of a pyramid, he chose to construct a mastaba, a rectangular block, which is commonly referred to as theMastabat al-Fir’aun ("Pharaoh's Bench").[8]
The identification of Baka is unresolved.[9] Several ancient lists of kings have survived. They do not agree, however, and none of them may be considered complete. TheTurin King List has alacuna betweenKhafre andMenkaure, where the author had listed a king who reigned between these two pharaohs. The name of the king and length of the reign are completely lost in the lacuna.[10]TheSaqqara Tablet also notes a king between Khafre and Menkaure, but here too, the name is lost.[11]Some authorities have equated this king withBikheris, onManetho's list, who could correspond to the Egyptian nameBaka orBakare.
Perhaps the most intriguing evidence of the fourth dynasty is the status ofKhentkaus I, also known as Khentykawes. She was a daughter ofMenkaure and her tomb was built along the Menkaure causeway. She may have ruled as king.
Her tomb is a largemastaba tomb, with another off-center mastaba placed above it. The second mastaba could not be centered over her primary mastaba because of the free, unsupported, space in the rooms below.
On a granite doorway leading into her tomb, Khentkaus I is given titles that may be read either asmother of two kings of upper and lower Egypt, asmother of the king of upper and lower Egypt and king of upper and lower Egypt, or, as one scholar reads it,king of upper and lower Egypt and mother of two kings of upper and lower Egypt.
Furthermore, her depiction on this doorway also gives her the full trappings of kingship, including the false beard of theking. This depiction and the title given have led some Egyptologists to suggest that she reigned as king near the end of the fourth dynasty.
Her tomb was finished in a characteristic niche style of architecture, however, the niches were later filled in with a smooth casing of limestone.
On the whole, Egypt was ruled by two centers of power—legal authority and traditional authority. Legal authority constituted governing by the king, not over the people directly, but viaviziers andnomarchs. Traditional authority was derived from the concept that the deities gave a king the divine right to rule as he pleased. At its heart, the Fourth Dynasty Egyptian government became organized so that only the king could direct traditional authority.
Statue ofRanofer,High Priest of Ptah. End of Fourth, beginning of Fifth Dynasty, circa 2500 BC. Egyptian Museum, Cairo
The Fourth Dynasty is a period in which a shift in religious practices can be seen. Worship of the sun was becoming the common practice, as theCult of Ra grew in size. The worship of the Sun was centered around the tomb of the king,Djedefre in the cityHeliopolis,which had been occupied sincepredynastic times, and named by theAncient Greeks.[12]
During the era centralization of the nation's resources, material, organic, and human, began to develop a relationship to the king. The kings and their relation to thedeities became unchallenged, with the kings carving their named into statues and monuments that had been previously reserved for deities.Khafre'sfamous statue, where a falcon was incorporated into his headgear, equated the king to the god Horus.
Kings no longer associated pyramids with theafterlife. The afterlife was once believed to be a divine kingdom that was represented as a type of idealistic heaven where only kings and pure hearts could go. Instead, theFourth Dynasty represented a change in this idea, formulated the notion that the afterlife was a familiar place, taking the semblance of Earth.[13]
Relief of Nofer and his Wife, detail. From Giza, tomb G2110, Dynasty 4, 2575–2465 BC.
TheOld Kingdom saw a rise in the preservation of the deceased, making the preparation of bodies much more complex. The position of embalmer was created, and their jobs were solely to prepare a corpse in private. There were three ways to mummify a body: 1) Stucco: the body would be wrapped in fine linen and then covered in stucco plaster, the features of the body (including the face) were remodeled in the plaster;[14] 2) Linen: the body would be wrapped in linen, which was sometimes treated with natron (a mixture of multiple sodium carbonates[15]) and the linens would be treated with resin so that the features of the body could be modeled; and 3) Defleshing: removing all flesh and wrapping the bones in linens.[16] Generally, organs were removed which were then put into jars that would accompany the body in the tomb, and the inside of the body flushed out.
Tombs in the Fourth Dynasty changed drastically. "Unimpressive" graves did not satisfy the elites, meaning they would settle for smaller structures if the interior was decorated.Hieroglyphic writings were important to elites because, one, it was a lavish display of wealth and, two, it guided their souls to theafterlife. The Fourth Dynasty, however, did not have these writings. Instead, the tomb was deeper and super-structures were larger. After theGiza pyramid complex, later generations of tombs were more reasonably sized. After the Middle Kingdom, royals abandoned pyramids; they preferred graves that were carved into living rock of the Upper Egyptian mountains.
TheAge of the Pyramids refers to the fact that theFourth Dynasty was the time when most of the well-known pyramids were built, which include those atGiza. King Sneferu was the first king to express an interest infunerary rites and tombs, which led him to the planning of the largest pyramid at Egypt. His first pyramids were called theBent Pyramid andRed Pyramid. The "Age of the Pyramids" was not just about the building of large and easily recognizable structures, but also a change in funerary practices and rituals. This includes the burying of elites in large structures and the use of extensivemummification.
The ancient king lists are in broad agreement on the order of most kings in this dynasty, though the obscure kings knownBikheris andThamphthis were sometimes excluded. TheSaqqara Tablet andTurin King List are both in fragmentary condition for this dynasty and some names and reign lengths have been lost as a result. TheSaqqara Tablet has five missingcartouches betweenKhafre andUserkaf, the founder of theFifth Dynasty. While up to four of these could be attributed to pharaohs recorded on other lists, it is unknown whose name would have appeared in the fifth cartouche, althoughKhentkaus I is a possibility.
Facial reconstruction and depiction created from the Nuwayrat individual skull.[19]Naturalistic contemporary rendering of PrincessNefertiabet, likely daughter ofSneferu and sister of kingKhufu, ca. 2580 BCE.[20]
For the first time, in a 2025 publication by the scientific journalNature, a whole-genome genetic study was able to give insights into the genetic background of Old Kingdom individuals, by sequencing the whole genome of an Old Kingdom adult male Egyptian of relatively high-status, radiocarbon-dated to 2855–2570 BCE, with funerary practices archeologically attributed to theThird and Fourth Dynasty, which was excavated in Nuwayrat (Nuerat, نويرات), in a cliff 265 km south of Cairo.[21][22] Before this study, whole-genome sequencing of ancient Egyptians from the early periods of Egyptian Dynastic history had not yet been accomplished, mainly because of the problematic DNA preservation conditions in Egypt.[21]
Ancestry model of Egyptian genome from Nuwayrat.[21]
The corpse had been placed intact in a large circular clay pot without embalming, and then installed inside a cliff tomb, which accounts for the comparatively good level of conservation of the skeleton and its DNA.[21] Most of his genome was found to be associated with North African Neolithic ancestry, but about 20% of his genetic ancestry could be sourced to the easternFertile Crescent, includingMesopotamia.[21] The genetic profile was most closely represented by a two-source model, in which 77.6% ± 3.8% of the ancestry corresponded to genomes from the Middle Neolithic Moroccan site of Skhirat-Rouazi (dated to 4780–4230 BCE), which itself consists of predominantly (76.4 ± 4.0%) Levant Neolithic ancestry and (23.6 ± 4.0%) minorIberomaurusian ancestry, while the remainder (22.4% ± 3.8%) was most closely related to known genomes from NeolithicMesopotamia (dated to 9000-8000 BCE).[21][23] Genomes from the Neolithic/Chalcolithic Levant only appeared as a minor third-place component in three-source models.[21] A 2022 DNA study had already shown evidence of gene flow from the Mesopotamian and Zagros regions into surrounding areas, including Anatolia, during the Neolithic, but not as far as Egypt yet.[23]
In terms of chronology, Egypt was one of the first areas to adopt the Neolithic package emerging from West Asia as early as the 6th millennium BCE.[21] Population genetics in the Nile Valley observed a marked change around this period, as shown by odontometric and dental tissue changes.[21] Cultural exchange and trade between the two regions then continued through the 4th millennium BCE, as shown by the transfer of MesopotamianLate Uruk period features to the Nile Valley of the laterPredynastic Period.[21] Migrations flows from Mesopotamia accompanied such cultural exchanges, possibly through the sea routes of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea or through yet un-sampled intermediaries in the Levant, which could explain the relative smallness of genetic influence from known Chalcolithic/Bronze Age Levantines populations.[21]
Overall, the 2025 study "provides direct evidence of genetic ancestry related to the eastern Fertile Crescent in ancient Egypt".[21] This genetic connection suggests that there had been ancient migration flows from the eastern Fertile Crescent to Egypt, in addition to the exchanges of objects and imagery (domesticated animals and plants, writing systems...) already observed.[21] This suggests a pattern ofwide cultural and demographic expansion from the Mesopotamian region, which affected both Anatolia and Egypt during this period.[21]
^Peter Jánosi:Giza in der 4. Dynastie. Die Baugeschichte und Belegung einer Nekropole des Alten Reiches. vol. I:Die Mastabas der Kernfriedhöfe und die Felsgräber, Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 2005,ISBN3-7001-3244-1, page 64–65.
^Wolfgang Helck:Untersuchungen zu Manetho und den ägyptischen Königslisten, (= Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde Ägyptens, Bd. 18), Leipzig/ Berlin 1956, page 52
^Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton:The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, The American University in Cairo Press, London 2004,ISBN977-424-878-3, page 61
^Roth, Ann Macy (1993). "Social Change in the Fourth Dynasty: The Spatial Organization of Pyramids, Tombs, and Cemeteries".Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt.30:33–55.doi:10.2307/40000226.JSTOR40000226.
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