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This article gives an outline ofFormula One engines, also calledFormula One power units since the hybrid era starting in 2014. Since its inception in 1947,Formula One has used a variety ofengineregulations.Formulae limiting engine capacity had been used in Grand Prix racing on a regular basis since afterWorld War I. The engine formulae are divided according toera.[1][2][3]
Formula One currently uses 1.6 litrefour-stroketurbocharged 90 degreeV6double-overhead camshaft (DOHC)reciprocating engines.[4] They were introduced in 2014 and have been developed over the subsequent seasons. Mostly from the 2023 season, specifications on Formula One engines, including the software used to control them and the maximum per-engine price to F1 teams of €15,000,000, have been frozen until the end of 2025, when the completely new 2026 spec will come into effect.
The history of F1 engines has always been a quest for more power, and the enormous power a Formula One engine produces had been generated by operating at a very high rotational speed, reaching over 20,000 revolutions per minute (rpm) during the 2004–2005 seasons. This is because an engine, theoretically, produces double the power when operated twice as fast if combustion (thermal) efficiency and energy loss remain the same. High-revving engines won races no matter how much fuel it consumed and how much wasted heat it generated, as long as they produced more power over the competition. However, with the skyrocketing cost of exotic materials and production methods enabling the high-speed operation, and the realisation that such advancements in technology would likely never applied to production vehicles (because the resultant product is very inefficient), it was decided to limit the maximum rotational speed (rev) to 19,000 rpm in 2007. The maximum rev was further limited to 18,000 rpm in 2009, and to 15,000 rpm for the 2014–2021 seasons.[5]
Still, the high speed operation of F1 engines contrasts with road car engines of a similar size, which typically operate at less than 6,000 rpm.
The high-speed rotation created a vibration problem caused bysecondary imbalance inherent in piston engines.Tony Rudd found inBRM 1.5L P56 V8 engine (11,000 rpm redline) of 1961–1962 that a long conrod, much longer than required, was key to reducing the secondary vibration, enabling a high revolution.Coventry Climax FWMV Mk.III, using a much longer conrod in the same cylinder block as Mk.II, proved this concept in 1963.[a] Other teams gradually found this secret, but this concept was not used in mass-produced cars for a long time[b] untilDaihatsu applied it to the extremely long-stroke 1.5L3SZ-VE engine introduced withdesaxe crankshaft, 4-valves, and variable valve timing in October 2005.[6]
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Until the mid-1980s Formula One engines were limited to around 12,000 rpm due to the traditional metal springs used to close the valves. The speed required to close the valves at a higher rpm called for ever stiffer springs, which increased the power required to drive the camshaft to open the valves, to the point where the loss nearly offset the power gain through the increase in rpm. They were replaced bypneumatic valve springs introduced by Renault in 1986,[7][8] which inherently have a rising rate (progressive rate) that allowed them to have an extremely highspring rate at larger valve strokes without much increasing the driving power requirements at smaller strokes, thus lowering the overall power loss. Since the 1990s, all Formula One engine manufacturers have used pneumatic valve springs with pressurised air.[8][9][10][11][12]
In addition to the use ofpneumatic valve springs, a Formula One engine's high rpm output has been made possible due to advances inmetallurgy and design, allowing lighter pistons and connecting rods to withstand the accelerations necessary to attain such high speeds. Improved design also allows narrower connecting rod ends and so narrower main bearings. This permits higher rpm with less bearing-damaging heat build-up. For each stroke, the piston goes from a virtual stop to almost twice the mean speed (approximately 40 m/s), then back to zero. This occurs once for each of the four strokes in the cycle: one Intake (down), one Compression (up), one Power (ignition-down), one Exhaust (up). Maximum piston acceleration occurs at top dead center (TDC) and is in the region of 95,000 m/s2, about 9,700 timesstandard gravity (9,700 G).[a]
To lower the maximum piston/conrod acceleration, Formula One cars useshort-stroke, multi-cylinder engines that result in lower average piston speed for a given displacement.[13] After seeing some 16-cylinder engines,[b] the number of cylinders was limited to twelve in 1972, ten in 2000, eight in 2006 and six in 2014. These regulation changes made higher-speed designs more difficult and less efficient. To operate at high engine speeds under such limits, the stroke must be short to prevent catastrophic failure, usually from theconnecting rod, which is under very large stresses. Having a short stroke means a relatively large bore is required to reach a givendisplacement. This results in less efficient combustion, due mostly to flame-front propagation having to travel the long distance (for a volume) of ever thinner disk (larger diameter with less height) -shaped combustion chamber deviating far away from the ideal sphere shape with the tip of spark plug at its center.[14][15]
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Due to the higher speed operation and the tighter restriction on the number of cylinders,efficiency of a naturally aspirated Formula One engine did not improve much since the 1967Ford Cosworth DFV and themean effective pressure stayed at around 14 bar (1.4 MPa) for a long time.[16]
From the 2014 season, a new concept of limiting the maximum fuel flow rate was introduced, which limits the power if energy loss and air/fuel ratio are constant. While the bore and stroke figures are now fixed by the rules, this regulation promoted the competition to improve powertrain efficiency. As energy loss increases nearly exponentially with engine speed, the rev limit became meaningless, so it was lifted in 2022. Currently, F1 engines rev up to about 13,000rpm, while thecombustion efficiency has risen to about 40 barBMEP and beyond, usinglean and rapid burn techniques enablingλ>1 (average air/fuel ratio much leaner than14.7:1 by mass)[15] and very high mechanical and effective compression ratios.[a]
In addition, energy recovery systems from exhaust pressure (MGU-Heat) and engine-brake (MGU-Kinetic) are allowed to further improve efficiency.MGU-H[17][18] is an electric motor/generator on the common shaft between the exhaust turbine and intake compressor of the turbocharger, whileMGU-K[19] is also an electric motor/generator driven by (or driving) crankshaft at a fixed ratio.
Together with improvements in fuel and these energy recovery systems, F1 engines increased power using the same amount of fuel in recent years. For example,Honda RA621H[20] engine of 2021 season generated over 100 kW (130 bhp) more maximum power overRA615H of the 2015 season at the same 100 kg/h fuel flow rate.[21]
With the hugely improved efficiency of the combustion, mechanicals, software and turbocharger, F1 engines are generating much less heat and noise compared to the levels in 2014,[b] andStefano Domenicali said the 2026 regulation will impose intentionally louder exhaust sound to please the fans.[22]
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Formula One engines have come through various regulations, manufacturers, and configurations.[23] Throughout its history, Formula One has been the forefront for technological innovation in engine design. From the early naturally aspirated engines to the introduction of turbocharged units and hybrid powertrains, each era has pushed the boundaries of engineering. The shift towards hybrids and sustainable technologies reflects the sport's commitment to environmental responsibility and technological advancement.[24] It is imperative to understand the distinction among the terms "Grand Prix", "World Championship" and "Formula One" to come to grips with the history.
Car racing in various forms began almost immediately after the invention of the automobile, and many of the first organised car racing events were held in Europe before 1900. There had been the tradition of calling a particular race in an event with the name of the award given to the winner in France and some other countries, as traditional racing events often had multiple races and classes, like Men, Women, 100m, 1500m, breast-stroke, etc. In the case of thePau –Tarbes –Bayonne – Pau (300km) road race held in 1900, there were no class divisions, and no prize on record was given to the winner,René de Knyff driving aPanhard et Revassor (2.1L 4-cylinder engine called the 'Phoenix'[25] jointly developed withGottlieb Daimler in Germany, about 20 hp), who became the commissioner of the CSI later. In 1901, the event was named "Semaine de Pau (Week in Pau)" held atCircuit de Pau-Ville (2.65km), and the prizes awarded to the winners were "Grand Prix de Pau (Grand Prize of Pau)" for the "650 kg or heavier" class, "Grand Prix duPalais d'Hiver (Grand Prize of the Winter Palace)" for "400 – 650 kg" class, and "Second Grand Prix du Palais d'Hiver" for the "under 400 kg" class. This event is significant not only because it called the prizes Grand Prix, but also because it was one of the very first automobile race events, including the fastest class of cars, held on a closed circuit.
It became obvious that the size of the engines (and whether they were supercharged) primarily determined how fast they could run, rather than the size and weight of the cars. After a period with series of fatal accidents and regulation changes, "under 1,500cc with supercharger, or 4,500cc without" was applied to the Grand Prix races for Voiture class in France beginning in 1914,[note 1] and the Voiturette class was re-defined as "under 1,100 cc, no supercharger".
After World War I (1914–1918), countries outside of France started using the "Grand Prix" name for races with different regulations, and in 1922,Commission Sportive Internationale (CSI), an international race governing committee was established byAutomobile Club of France on behalf ofAIACR. This AIACR sanctioned theAutomobile World Championship from 1925[26] to 1930,[27]European Drivers' Championship from 1931 to 1939,[28] and later became theFédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) in 1946.
Formula One was defined by the CSI as the first internationally unified regulation to govern a class of racing cars in 1946 to be effective 1947, reflecting the Voiture regulation of "under 1,500 cc with supercharger, or 4,500 cc without". After Formula One was more or less'ratified' or accepted by other countries, Formula Two was defined in 1947 as "under 500 cc with supercharger, or 2,000 cc without".[29]
In contrast to the pre-existedEuropean Drivers' Championship, Formula One events were meant to be competition among the countries. Each car, or team, represented a country in this 'international' race, with the cars painted in the "national colours", like red for Italy, green for the UK, silver for Germany, and blue for France. The World Championship for Drivers was defined by the CSI in 1949 for 1950 and onwards to honour the drivers, instead of the countries they represented.[30] The World Championship for Constructors started in 1958,[31] created partly to resolve the then-common dispute between a winning driver and his team on the ownership of the Grand Prix trophy. These championships had a longer-term effect of downplaying the country representation.
Over the years, Formula One added more and more regulations, not only on engines but chassis, tyres, fuel, inspections, championship points, penalties, safety measures, cost control, licensing, distribution of profits, how the qualifying and races must be governed and run, etc., etc. Today, the vast regulations on Power Unit are a very small part of what defines Formula One, which regulates even the number of Summer vacation days the constructor factories must observe.
This era used pre-warvoiturette engine regulations, with 4.5 L atmospheric and 1.5 Lsupercharged engines. TheIndianapolis 500 (which was a round of theWorld Drivers' Championship from 1950 onwards) used pre-warGrand Prix regulations, with 4.5 L atmospheric and 3.0 L supercharged engines. The power range was up to 425 hp (317 kW), though theBRM Type 15 of 1953 reportedly achieved 600 hp (447 kW) with a 1.5 L supercharged engine.
In 1952 and 1953, theWorld Drivers' Championship was run toFormula Two regulations, but the existingFormula One regulations remained in force and a number of Formula One races were still held in those years.
Naturally aspirated engine size was reduced to 2.5 L and supercharged cars were limited to 750 cc. No constructor built a supercharged engine for the World Championship. TheIndianapolis 500 continued to use old pre-war regulations. The power range was up to 290 hp (216 kW).
Introduced in 1961 amidst some criticism, the new reduced engine 1.5 L formula took control of F1 just as every team and manufacturer switched from front to mid-engined cars. Although these were initially underpowered, by 1965 average power had increased by nearly 50% and lap times were faster than in 1960. The old 2.5 L formula had been retained for International Formula racing, but this did not achieve much success until the introduction of theTasman Series in Australia and New Zealand during the winter season, leaving the 1.5 L cars as the fastest single seaters in Europe during this time. The power range was between 150 hp (112 kW) and 225 hp (168 kW).
In 1966, with sports cars capable of outrunning Formula One cars thanks to much larger and more powerful engines, the FIA increased engine capacity to 3.0 L atmospheric and 1.5 L compressed engines.[32] Although a few manufacturers had been aiming for larger engines, the transition was not smooth and 1966 was a transitional year, with 2.0 L versions of the BRM and Coventry-Climax V8 engines being used by several entrants. The appearance of the standard-producedCosworth DFV in 1967 made it possible for small manufacturers to join the series with a chassis designed in-house. Compression devices were allowed for the first time since 1960, but it was not until 1977 that a company actually had the finance and interest of building one, whenRenault debuted their new Gordini V6 turbocharged engine at that year's British Grand Prix at Silverstone. This engine had a considerable power advantage over the naturally aspirated Cosworth DFV, Ferrari and Alfa Romeo engines.
By the start of the 1980s, Renault had proved that turbocharging was the way to go in order to stay competitive in Formula One, particularly at high-altitude circuits likeKyalami in South Africa andInterlagos in Brazil. Ferrari introduced their all-new V6 turbocharged engine in 1981, before Brabham ownerBernie Ecclestone managed to persuade BMW to manufacturestraight-4 turbos for his team from 1982 onwards. In 1983, Alfa Romeo introduced a V8 turbo, and by the end of that yearHonda andPorsche had introduced their own V6 turbos (the latter badged asTAG in deference to the company that provided the funding). Cosworth and the ItalianMotori Moderni concern also manufactured V6 turbos during the 1980s, whileHart Racing Engines manufactured their own straight-4 turbo.
By mid-1985, every Formula One car was running with a turbocharged engine. In 1986, power figures were reaching unprecedented levels, with all engines reaching over 1,000 hp (750 kW) during qualifying with unrestricted turbo boost pressures. This was especially seen with the BMW straight-4 turbo, theM12/13, which produced around 1,400–1,500 hp (1,040–1,120 kW) at 5.5 bar of boost in qualifying trim, but was detuned to produce between 850–900 hp (630–670 kW) in race spec. However, these engines and gearboxes were very unreliable because of the engine's immense power, and would only last about four laps. For the race, the turbocharger's boost was restricted to ensure engine reliability; but the engines still produced 850–1,000 hp (630–750 kW) during the race.
The power range from 1966 to 1986 was between 285 hp (210 kW) to 500 hp (370 kW), turbos 500 hp (370 kW) to 900 hp (670 kW) in race trim, and in qualifying, up to 1,400 hp (1,040 kW). Following their experiences at Indianapolis, in 1971 Lotus made a few unsuccessful experiments with aPratt & Whitney turbine fitted to chassis which also hadfour-wheel-drive.[33]
Following the turbo domination, forced induction was allowed for two seasons before its eventual ban in 1989. The FIA regulations limited boost pressure, to 4 bar in qualifying in 1987 for 1.5 L turbo; and allowed a larger 3.5 L formula. Fuel tank sizes were further reduced in size to 150 litres for turbo cars to limit the amount of boost used in a race. These seasons were still dominated by turbocharged engines, theHonda RA167E V6 supplyingNelson Piquet winning the1987 Formula One season on aWilliams also winning the constructors championship, followed byTAG-Porsche P01 V6 inMcLaren then Honda again with the previous RA166E forLotus thenFerrari's own 033D V6.
The rest of the grid was powered by theFord GBA V6 turbo inBenetton, with the only naturally aspirated engine, the DFV-derived Ford-Cosworth DFZ 3.5 L V8 outputting 575 hp (429 kW) inTyrrell,Lola,AGS,March andColoni.[34] The massively powerfulBMW M12/13 inline-four found in theBrabham BT55 tilted almost horizontally, and in upright position under theMegatron brand inArrows andLigier, producing 900 bhp (670 kW) at 3.8 bar in race trim, and an incredible 1,400–1,500 bhp (1,040–1,120 kW) at 5.5 bar of boost in qualifying spec.[35]Zakspeed was building its own turbo inline-four,Alfa Romeo was to power the Ligiers with an inline-four but the deal fell through after initial testing had been carried out. Alfa was still represented by its old 890T V8 used byOsella, andMinardi was powered by aMotori Moderni V6.
In1988, six teams – McLaren, Ferrari, Lotus, Arrows, Osella and Zakspeed – continued with turbocharged engines, now limited to 2.5 bar. Honda's V6 turbo, the RA168E, which produced 685 hp (511 kW) at 12,300 rpm in qualifying,[36] powered theMcLaren MP4/4 with whichAyrton Senna andAlain Prost won fifteen of the sixteen races between them. The Italian Grand Prix was won byGerhard Berger in theFerrari F1/87/88C, powered by the team's own V6 turbo, the 033E, with about 720 hp (537 kW) at 12,000 rpm in qualifying and 620 hp (462 kW) at 12,000 rpm in races.[37] The Honda turbo also powered Lotus's100T, while Arrows continued with the Megatron-badged BMW turbo, Osella continued with the Alfa Romeo V8 (now badged as an Osella) and Zakspeed continued with their own straight-4 turbo. All the other teams used naturally aspirated 3.5 L V8 engines: Benetton used the Cosworth DFR, which produced 585 hp (436 kW) at 11,000 rpm;[38] Williams, March and Ligier used theJudd CV, producing 600 hp (447 kW);[39] and the rest of the grid used the previous year's 575 hp (429 kW) Cosworth DFZ.
Turbochargers were banned from the1989 Formula One season, leaving only a naturally aspirated 3.5 L formula. Honda was still dominant with their RA109E 72° V10 giving 685 hp (511 kW) @ 13,500 rpm onMcLaren cars, enabling Prost to win the championship in front of his teammate Senna. Behind were theRenault RS1-powered Williams, a 67° V10 giving 650 hp (485 kW) @ 12,500 rpm and the Ferrari with its 035/5 65° V12 giving 660 hp (492 kW) at 13,000 rpm. Behind, the grid was powered mainly byFord Cosworth DFR V8 giving 620 hp (462 kW) @ 10,750 rpm except for a few Judd CV V8 in Lotus, Brabham andEuroBrun cars, and two oddballs: the 620 hp (460 kW)Lamborghini 3512 80° V12 powering Lola, and the 560 hp (420 kW)Yamaha OX88 75° V8 in Zakspeed cars. Ford started to try its new design, the 75° V8 HBA1 with Benetton.
The1990 Formula One season was again dominated by Honda in McLarens with the 690 hp (515 kW) @ 13,500 rpm RA100E poweringAyrton Senna andGerhard Berger ahead of the 680 hp (507 kW) @ 12,750 rpm Ferrari Tipo 036 ofAlain Prost andNigel Mansell. Behind them the Ford HBA4 for Benetton and Renault RS2 for Williams with 660 hp (492 kW) @ 12,800 rpm were leading the pack powered by Ford DFR and Judd CV engines. The exceptions were the Lamborghini 3512 in Lola and Lotus, and the new Judd EV 76° V8 giving 640 hp (477 kW) @ 12,500 rpm inLeyton House and Brabham cars. The two new contenders were theLife which built for themselves an F35 W12 with three four cylinders banks @ 60°, andSubaru givingColoni a 1235 flat-12 fromMotori Moderni
Honda was still leading the1991 Formula One season in Senna's McLaren with the 725–780 hp (541–582 kW) @ 13,500–14,500 rpm 60° V12 RA121E, just ahead of the Renault RS3 powered Williams benefiting from 700–750 hp (520–560 kW) @ 12,500–13,000 rpm. Ferrari was behind with its Tipo 037, a new 65° V12 giving 710 hp (529 kW) @ 13,800 rpm also poweringMinardi, just ahead the Ford HBA4/5/6 in Benetton and Jordan cars. Behind, Tyrrell was using the previous Honda RA109E, Judd introduced its new GV withDallara leaving the previous EV to Lotus, Yamaha were giving its 660 hp (492 kW) OX99 70° V12 to Brabham, Lamborghini engines were used byModena and Ligier.Ilmor introduced its LH10, a 680 hp (507 kW) @ 13,000 rpm V10 which eventually became theMercedes with Leyton House andPorsche sourced a little successful3512 V12 toFootwork Arrows; the rest of the field was Ford DFR powered.[40]
In 1992, theRenault engines became dominant, even more so following the departure from the sport ofHonda at the end of 1992. The 3.5 L Renault V10 engines powering the Williams F1 team produced a power output between 750–820 bhp (559–611 kW; 760–831 PS) @ 13,000–14,300 rpm toward the end of the 3.5 L naturally aspirated era, between 1992 and 1994. Renault-engined cars won the last three consecutive world constructors' championships of the 3.5 L formula era withWilliams (1992–1994).[41]
ThePeugeot A4V10, used by theMcLaren Formula One team in 1994, initially developed 700 bhp (522 kW; 710 PS) @ 14,250 rpm. It was later further developed into the A6, which produced even more power, developing 760 bhp (567 kW; 771 PS) @ 14,500 rpm.
TheEC Zetec-RV8, which powered the championship-winningBenetton team andMichael Schumacher in 1994, produced between 730–750 bhp (544–559 kW; 740–760 PS) @ 14,500 rpm.[42]
By the end of the 1994 season, Ferrari'sTipo 043V12 was putting out around 850 hp (634 kW)[43] @ 15,800 rpm, which is to date the most powerful naturally aspirated V12 engine ever used in Formula One. This was also the most powerful engine of 3.5-litre engine regulation era, before a reduction in engine capacity to 3 litres in 1995.[44]
This era used a 3.0 L formula, with the power range varying (depending on engine tuning) between 600 hp (447 kW) and 1,000 hp (746 kW), between 13,000 rpm and 20,000 rpm, and from eight to twelve cylinders. Despiteengine displacement being reduced from 3.5 L, power figures and RPMs still managed to climb. Renault was the initial dominant engine supplier from 1995 until 1997, winning the first three world championships with Williams and Benetton in this era. The championship-winning 1995Benetton B195 produced a power output of 675 hp (503.3 kW) @ 15,200 rpm, and the 1996 championship-winningWilliams FW18 produced 700 hp (522.0 kW) @ 16,000 rpm; both from a sharedRenault RS8 3.0 LV10 engine.[45][46] The 1997 championship-winningFW19 produced between 730–760 hp (544.4–566.7 kW) @ 16,000 rpm, from its Renault RS9B 3.0 L V10. Ferrari's last V12 engine, theTipo 044/1, was used in1995. The engine's design was largely influenced by major regulation changes imposed by theFIA after the dreadful events during the year before: the V12 engine was reduced from 3.5 to 3.0 litres. The 3.0-litre engine produced around 700 hp (522 kW) 17,000 rpm in race trim; but was reportedly capable of producing up to 760 hp (567 kW) in its highest state of tune for qualification mode.[47] Between 1995 and 2000, cars using this 3.0 L engine formula, imposed by theFIA, produced a constant power range (depending on engine type and tuning), varying between 600 hp and 815 hp. Most Formula One cars during the1997 season comfortably produced a consistent power output of between 665–760 hp (495.9–566.7 kW), depending on whether aV8 orV10 engine configuration was used.[48] From 1998 to 2000 it was Mercedes' power that ruled, givingMika Häkkinen two world championships. The 1999McLaren MP4/14 produced between 785 and 810 hp @ 17,000 rpm.Ferrari gradually improved their engine. In1996, they changed from their traditionalV12 engine to a smaller and lighter V10 engine. They preferred reliability to power, losing out to Mercedes in terms of outright power initially. Ferrari's first V10 engine, in 1996, produced 715 hp (533 kW) @ 15,550 rpm,[49] down on power from their most powerful 3.5 L V12 (in 1994), which produced over 830 hp (619 kW) @ 15,800 rpm, but up on power from their last 3.0 L V12 (in 1995), which produced 700 hp (522 kW) @ 17,000 rpm. At the1998 Japanese GP, Ferrari's 047D engine spec was said to produce over 800 bhp (600 kW), and from 2000 onward, they were never short of power or reliability. To keep costs down, the 3.0 L V10 engine configuration was made fully mandatory for all teams in 2000 so that engine builders would not develop and experiment with other configurations.[50] The V10 configuration had been the most popular since the banning ofturbocharged engines in 1989, and no other configuration had been used since 1998.
BMW started supplying its engines to Williams from 2000. The engine was very reliable in the first season though slightly short of power compared to Ferrari and Mercedes units. TheBMW E41-poweredWilliams FW22 produced around 810 hp @ 17,500 rpm, during the 2000 season.[51] BMW went straight forward with its engine development. The P81, used during the 2001 season, was able to hit 17,810 rpm. Unfortunately, reliability was a large issue with several blowups during the season.
The BMW P82, the engine used by the BMW WilliamsF1 Team in 2002, had hit a peak speed of 19,050 rpm in its final evolutionary stage. It was also the first engine in the 3.0 litre V10-era to break through the 19,000 rpm wall, during the2002 Italian Grand Prix's qualifying.[52] BMW's P83 engine used in 2003 season managed an impressive 19,200 rpm and cleared the 900 bhp (670 kW) mark, at around 940 bhp, and weighs less than 200 lb (91 kg).[53][54]Honda'sRA003E V10 also cleared the 900 bhp (670 kW) mark at the2003 Canadian Grand Prix.[55]
In 2005, no more than 5 valves per cylinder were permitted.[56] Also, the FIA introduced new regulations limiting each car to one engine per two Grand Prix weekends, putting the emphasis on increased reliability. In spite of this, power outputs continued to rise. Mercedes engines had about 930 bhp (690 kW) in this season.Cosworth,Mercedes,Renault, andFerrari engines all produced around 900 bhp (670 kW) to 940 bhp (700 kW) @ 19,000 rpm.[57]Honda had over 965 bhp (720 kW).[58][59] TheBMW engine made over 950 bhp (710 kW).[60][61] Toyota engines had over 1,000 bhp (750 kW), according toToyota Motorsport's executive Vice President, Yoshiaki Kinoshita.[62] However, for reliability and longevity purposes, this power figure may have been detuned to around 960 bhp (720 kW) for races.[63]
For 2006, the engines had to be 90°V8 of 2.4 litres maximum capacity with a circular bore of 98 mm (3.9 in) maximum, which implies a 39.75 mm (1.565 in) stroke at maximum bore. The engines must have two inlet and two exhaustvalves per cylinder, benaturally aspirated and have a 95 kg (209 lb) minimum weight. The previous year's engines with a rev-limiter were permitted for 2006 and 2007 for teams who were unable to acquire a V8 engine, withScuderia Toro Rosso using a Cosworth V10, after Red Bull's takeover of the formerMinardi team did not include the new engines.[64] The 2006 season saw the highest rev limits in the history of Formula One, at well over 20,000 rpm; before a 19,000 rpm mandatory rev limiter was implemented for all competitors in 2007. Cosworth was able to achieve just over 20,000 rpm with their V8,[65] and Renault around 20,500 rpm. Honda did the same, albeit only on the dynamometer.
Pre-cooling air before it enters the cylinders, injection of any substance other than air and fuel into the cylinders, variable-geometryintake andexhaust systems, andvariable valve timing were forbidden. Each cylinder could have only onefuel injector and a single plugspark ignition. Separate starting devices were used to start engines in the pits and on the grid. The crankcase and cylinder block had to be made of cast or wroughtaluminium alloys. The crankshaft and camshafts had to be made from aniron alloy, pistons from an aluminium alloy, and valves from alloys based oniron,nickel,cobalt ortitanium. These restrictions were in place to reduce development costs on the engines.[66]
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The reduction in capacity was designed to give a power reduction of around 20% from the three-litre engines, to reduce the increasing speeds of Formula One cars. Despite this, in many cases the performance of the car improved. In 2006Toyota F1 announced an approximate 740 hp (552 kW) output at 18,000 rpm for its new RVX-06 engine,[67] but real figures are of course difficult to obtain. Most cars from this period (2006–2008) produced a regular power output of approximately between 720 and 800 hp @ 19,000 rpm (over 20,000 rpm for the2006 season).[68]
The engine specification was frozen in 2007 to keep development costs down. The engines which were used in the2006 Japanese Grand Prix were used for the 2007 and 2008 seasons and they were limited to 19,000 rpm. In 2009 the limit was reduced to 18,000 rpm with each driver allowed to use a maximum of 8 engines over the season. Any driver needing an additional engine is penalised 10 places on the starting grid for the first race the engine is used. This increases the importance of reliability, although the effect is only seen towards the end of the season. Certain design changes intended to improve engine reliability may be carried out with permission from the FIA. This has led to some engine manufacturers, notably Ferrari and Mercedes, exploiting this ability by making design changes which not only improve reliability but also boost engine power output as a side effect. As the Mercedes engine was proven to be the strongest, re-equalisations of engines were allowed by the FIA to allow other manufacturers to match the power.[69]
2009 saw the exit of Honda from Formula One. The team was acquired byRoss Brawn, creatingBrawn GP and theBGP 001. With the absence of the Honda engine, Brawn GP retrofitted the Mercedes engine to the BGP 001 chassis. The newly branded team won both the Constructors' Championship and the Drivers' Championship from better-known and better-established contenders Ferrari, McLaren-Mercedes, and Renault.
Cosworth, absent since the end of the2006 season, returned in 2010. New teamsLotus Racing,HRT, andVirgin Racing, along with the establishedWilliams, used this engine. The season also saw the withdrawal of theBMW andToyota engines, as the car companies withdrew from Formula One due to theGreat Recession.[70]
In 2009, constructors were allowed to usekinetic energy recovery systems (KERS), also calledregenerative brakes. Energy can either be stored as mechanical energy (as in a flywheel) or as electrical energy (as in a battery or supercapacitor), with a maximum power of 81 hp (60 kW; 82 PS) deployed by anelectric motor, for a little over 6 seconds per lap. Four teams used it at some point in the season: Ferrari, Renault, BMW, and McLaren.[71]
Although KERS was still legal in F1 in the 2010 season, all the teams agreed not to use it. KERS returned for the 2011 season, when only three teams elected not to use it. For the 2012 season, onlyMarussia and HRT raced without KERS, and in 2013 all teams on the grid had KERS. From 2010 to 2013 cars have a regular power of 700–800 hp, averaging around 750 hp @ 18,000 rpm.[72][73]
The FIA announced a change from the 2.4-litreV8, introducing 1.6-litreV6hybrid engines (more than one power source) for the2014 season. The new regulations allow kinetic and heatenergy recovery systems.[74] Forced induction was now allowed – eitherturbochargers, which last appeared in1988, orsuperchargers – with all constructors opting to use a turbocharger. Instead of limiting the boost level, the regulations introduced a fuel flow restriction at 100 kg of petrol per hour maximum. The engines sounded very different from the previous formula, due to the lower rev limit (15,000 rpm) and the turbocharger. The introduction of these systems in 2014 significantly altered race strategies and team budgets. Energy recovery and deployment strategies became critical factors in race outcomes. On top of that the complexity and cost of developing these hybrid systems led to substantial increases in team spending. This financial strain contributed to the FIA's decision to implement a cost cap starting in the 2021 season, aiming to ensure a more level playing field among teams.[75]
The new formula for turbocharged engines have their efficiency improved throughturbo-compounding by recovering energy from exhaust gases.[76] The original proposal for four-cylinder turbocharged engines was not welcomed by the racing teams, in particular Ferrari.Adrian Newey stated during the2011 European Grand Prix that the change to a V6 enables teams to carry the engine as astressed member, whereas an inline-4 would have required a space frame. A compromise was reached, allowing V6 forced induction engines instead.[76] The engines rarely exceed 12,000 rpm during qualifying and race, due to the new fuel flow restrictions.[77]
Energy recovery systems such as KERS had a boost of 160 hp (120 kW) and 2 megajoules per lap. KERS was renamed Motor Generator Unit–Kinetic (MGU-K).Heat energy recovery systems were also allowed, under the name Motor Generator Unit–Heat (MGU-H).
The 2015 season was an improvement on 2014, adding about 30–50 hp (20–40 kW) to most engines, the Mercedes engine being the most powerful with 870 hp (649 kW). In 2019, Renault's engine was claimed to have hit 1,000 hp in qualifying trim.[78]
Of the previous manufacturers, only Mercedes, Ferrari and Renault produced engines to the new formula in 2014, whereas Cosworth stopped supplying engines. Honda returned as an engine manufacturer in 2015, with McLaren switching to Honda power after using the Mercedes engine in 2014.
In January 2018, the FIA issued a technical directive to prevent engine manufacturers from supplying customer teams with unequal engines, ensuring engine performance parity with works teams.[79][80][81]
In 2019, Red Bull switched from using a Renault engine to Honda power. Honda supplied both Red Bull and AlphaTauri. Honda withdrew as a power unit supplier at the end of2021, with Red Bull taking over the project and producing the enginein-house.[82]
In 2017, the FIA began negotiations with existing constructors and potential new manufacturers over the next generation of engines with a projected introduction date of2021 but delayed to2022 due to the effects of theCOVID-19 pandemic.[83] The initial proposal was designed to simplify engine designs, cut costs, promote new entries and address criticisms directed at the 2014 generation of engines. It called for the 1.6 L V6 configuration to be retained, but abandoned the complex Motor Generator Unit–Heat (MGU-H) system.[84] TheMotor Generator Unit–Kinetic (MGU-K) would be more powerful, with a greater emphasis on driver deployment and a more flexible introduction to allow for tactical use. The proposal also called for the introduction of standardised components and design parameters to make components produced by all manufacturers compatible with one another in a system dubbed "plug in and play".[84] A further proposal to allow four-wheel drive cars was also made, with the front axle driven by anMGU-K unit—as opposed to the traditional driveshaft—that functioned independently of theMGU-K providing power to the rear axle, mirroring the system developed byPorsche for the919 Hybrid race car.[85][86]
However, mostly due to no new engine supplier applying for F1 entry in 2021 and 2022, the abolishment of MGU-H, a more powerful MGU-K and a four-wheel drive system were all shelved with the possibility of their re-introduction for 2026. Instead, the teams andFIA agreed to a radical change in body/chassis aerodynamics to promote more battles on the course at closer distances to each other. They further agreed to an increase in alcohol content from 5.75% to 10% of fuel, and to implement a freeze on power unit design for 2022–2025, with the internal combustion engine (ICE), turbocharger and MGU-H being frozen on 1 March and the energy store, MGU-K and control electronics being frozen on 1 September during the 2022 season.[87]Honda, the outgoing engine supplier in 2021, was keen to keep the MGU-H, andRed Bull, who took over the engine production project, backed that opinion.[88] The 4WD system was planned to be based on Porsche 919 Hybrid system,[85] but Porsche ended up not becoming an F1 engine supplier for 2021–2022.
New engine regulations will be introduced from the2026 season. These engine regulations will see the turbocharged 1.6 V6 internal combustion engine configuration used since 2014 retained. The new power units will produce over 1,000 bhp (750 kW), although the power will come from different places. The MGU-H (Motor Generator Unit – Heat) will be banned, while the MGU-K's (Motor Generator Unit – Kinetic) output will increase to 470 bhp (350 kW) – previously the MGU-K had a maximum power output of 160 bhp (120 kW). The power output of the internal combustion part of the power unit will decrease to 540 bhp (400 kW) from 850 bhp (630 kW). In addition, fuel flow rates will be limited based on theoretical energy available from rule-specified unified composition, rather than mass of the various fuel from different sources. There is also intended to be further restrictions on components such as MGU-Ks and exhausts imposed from 2027. The new power units are due to be run on a fully sustainable fuel, being developed by Formula One.[89][90]
Audi are due to become an engine provider from 2026 onwards.[91]Ford are due to partner with Red Bull Powertrains asRed Bull Ford Powertrains from 2026 after a 21-year absence.[92][93][94] Honda, under its subsidiaryHonda Racing Corporation, has also entered as a manufacturer for 2026 according to the FIA after officially leaving the sport in 2021.[95] The FIA also confirmed that Ferrari, Mercedes-AMG and Alpine (Renault) were registered as power unit suppliers for 2026.[96] However, on 30 September 2024, owing to lack of strong results with its power unit during the V6 turbo-hybrid era since it began in 2014,Renault announced it would be ending its engine programme following the conclusion of the2025 championship and would not be making engines for the new 2026 regulations after all.[97] A 2025 FIA proposal to end the 2026 engine formula for 2028 and switch to sustainably fuelled naturally aspirated V10 engines was rejected by teams.[98] On 23 April 2025, the FIA confirmed that General Motors through its Cadillac brand would become a power unit supplier from the 2029 season onwards. TheCadillac Formula One Team were already announced as joining the grid from the 2026 season onwards using customer Ferrari power units for an interim period whilst the Cadillac engine is developed.[99]
| Years | Operating principle[a] | Maximum displacement | Configuration | RPM limit | Fuel flow limit (Qmax) | Fuel composition | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Naturally aspirated | Forced induction | Alcohol | Petrol | |||||
| 1947–1953[b] | Unspecified | 4.5 L | 1.5 L | Unrestricted | Unrestricted[100] | Unrestricted | Unrestricted[c] | |
| 1954–1957 | 2.5 L | 0.75 L | ||||||
| 1958–1960 | Prohibited | Aviation 130 octane[101] | ||||||
| 1961–1965 | 1.5 L (1.3 L min.) | Prohibited | ||||||
| 1966–1971 | Piston, Rotary & Turbine[d] | 3.0 L | 1.5 L | Commercial[e] | ||||
| 1972–1980 | Up to 12 cylinders[103] | |||||||
| 1981–1985 | 4-stroke Piston | |||||||
| 1986 | Prohibited | |||||||
| 1987 | 3.5 L | 1.5 L, 4 bar | ||||||
| 1988 | 1.5 L, 2.5 bar | |||||||
| 1989–1991 | Prohibited | |||||||
| 1992–1994 | Unleaded | |||||||
| 1995–1999 | 3.0 L | |||||||
| 2000–2005 | V10 | |||||||
| 2006[f][104] | 2.4 L | 90° V8 | ||||||
| 2007[f] | 19,000 rpm | |||||||
| 2008 | 5.75%[g] | |||||||
| 2009–2013[h] | 90° V8 + KERS | 18,000 rpm | ||||||
| 2014–2021[i] | 1.6 L (no minimum)[j][105][106] | 90° V6 + MGU-K + MGU-H | 15,000 rpm[k] | (0.009 × rpm) + 5.5 up to 100kg/h[l] | ||||
| 2022–2025[i][107] | 1.6 L (1,590cc minimum)[m] | Unrestricted[k] | ≥10%[n] | |||||
| 2026 onwards | 90° V6 + MGU-K | (0.27 × rpm) + 165 up to 3,000MJ/h[o] | TBA[p] | |||||
Notes:
Notes:
Figures correct as of the2025 Las Vegas Grand Prix
Bold indicates engine manufacturers that have competed in Formula One in the 2025 season.
