| Formosan | |
|---|---|
| (geographic) | |
| Geographic distribution |  Taiwan |
| Ethnicity | Taiwanese Aborigines (Formosan people) |
| Linguistic classification | Austronesian
|
| Proto-language | Proto-Austronesian |
| Subdivisions | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-5 | fox |
| Glottolog | None |
 Families of Formosan languages before Chinese colonization, perBlust (1999). Malayo-Polynesian (red) may lie within Eastern Formosan (purple).The white section is unattested; some maps fill it in with Luiyang, Kulon or as generic 'Ketagalan'.[1] | |
TheFormosan languages are a geographic grouping ofAustronesian languages spoken by theindigenous peoples of Taiwan. They do not form a single subfamily of Austronesian but rather up to nine separate primary subfamilies. TheTaiwanese indigenous peoples recognized by the government are about 2.3% of the island's population. However, only 35% speak their ancestral language, due to centuries oflanguage shift.[2] Of the approximately 26 languages of the Taiwanese indigenous peoples, at least ten areextinct, another four (perhaps five) aremoribund,[3][4] and all others are to some degree endangered. They arenational languages of Taiwan.[5]
The aboriginal languages ofTaiwan have great significance inhistorical linguistics since, in all likelihood, Taiwan is theplace of origin of the entire Austronesian language family. According to American linguistRobert Blust, the Formosan languages form nine of the ten principal branches of the family,[6] while the one remaining principal branch,Malayo-Polynesian, contains nearly 1,200 Austronesian languages found outside Taiwan.[7] Although some other linguists disagree with some details of Blust's analysis, a broad consensus has coalesced around the conclusion that the Austronesian languages originated in Taiwan,[8] and the theory has been strengthened by recent studies in human population genetics.[9]
All Formosan languages are slowly being replaced by the culturally dominantTaiwanese Mandarin. In recent decades the Taiwan government started an aboriginal reappreciation program that included the reintroduction of Formosanfirst languages in Taiwanese schools. However, the results of this initiative have been disappointing.[10]
In 2005, in order to help with the preservation of the languages of the indigenous people of Taiwan, the council established aRomanized writing system for all of Taiwan's aboriginal languages. The council has also helped with classes and language certification programs for members of the indigenous community and the non-Formosan Taiwanese to help the conservation movement.[11]
Formosan languages form nine distinct branches of the Austronesian language family (with all other Malayo-Polynesian languages forming the tenth branch of the Austronesian).[citation needed]
It is often difficult to decide where to draw the boundary between a language and a dialect, causing some minor disagreement among scholars regarding the inventory of Formosan languages. There is even more uncertainty regarding possible extinct orassimilated Formosan peoples. Frequently cited examples of Formosan languages are given below,[12] but the list should not be considered exhaustive.
| Language | Code | No. of dialects | Dialects | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Amis | ami | 5 | 'Amisay a Pangcah, Siwkolan, Pasawalian, Farangaw, Palidaw | |
| Atayal | tay | 6 | Squliq, Skikun, Ts'ole', Ci'uli, Mayrinax, Plngawan | high dialect diversity, sometimes considered separate languages |
| Bunun | bnn | 5 | Takitudu, Takibakha, Takivatan, Takbanuaz, Isbukun | high dialect diversity |
| Kanakanavu | xnb | 1 | moribund | |
| Kavalan | ckv | 1 | listed in some sources[3] as moribund, though further analysis may show otherwise[13] | |
| Paiwan | pwn | 4 | Eastern, Northern, Central, Southern | |
| Puyuma | pyu | 4 | Puyuma, Katratripul, Ulivelivek, Kasavakan | |
| Rukai | dru | 6 | Ngudradrekay, Taromak Drekay, Teldreka, Thakongadavane, 'Oponoho | |
| Saaroa | sxr | 1 | moribund | |
| Saisiyat | xsy | 1 | ||
| Sakizaya | szy | 1 | ||
| Seediq | trv | 3 | Tgdaya, Toda, Truku | |
| Thao | ssf | 1 | moribund | |
| Tsou | tsu | 1 | ||
| Yami/Tao | tao | 1 | also called Tao. Linguistically, not a member of the "Formosan languages", but aMalayo-Polynesian language. |
| Language | Code | No. of dialects | Dialects | Extinction date & notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Basay | byq | 1 | Mid-20th century | |
| Babuza | bzg | 3? | Babuza, Takoas, Favorlang (?). | Late 19th century. Ongoing revival efforts. |
| Kulon | uon | 1 | Mid-20th century | |
| Pazeh | pzh | 2 | Pazeh, Kaxabu | 2010. Ongoing revival efforts. |
| Ketagalan | kae | 1 | Mid-20th century | |
| Papora | ppu | 2? | Papora, Hoanya (?). | |
| Siraya | fos | 2? | Siraya, Makatao (?). | Late 19th century. Ongoing revival efforts. |
| Taivoan | tvx | 1 | Late 19th century. Ongoing revival efforts. |
Verbs typically are not inflected for person or number, but do inflect for tense, mood, voice and aspect. Formosan languages are unusual in their use of thesymmetrical voice, in which a noun is marked with thedirect case while the verb affix indicates its role in the sentence. This can be seen as a generalisation of the active and passive voices, and is considered a uniquemorphosyntactic alignment. Furthermore, adverbs are not a unique category of words, but are instead expressed bycoverbs.[citation needed]
Nouns are not marked for number and do not have grammatical gender. Noun cases are typically marked by particles rather than inflecting the word itself.[citation needed]
In terms of word order, most Formosan languages display verb-initial word order—VSO (verb-subject-object) or VOS (verb-object-subject)—with the exception of someNorthern Formosan languages, such asThao,Saisiyat, andPazih, possibly from influence from Chinese.[citation needed]
Li (1998) lists theword orders of several Formosan languages.[14]
TananRukai is the Formosan language with the largest number of phonemes with 23 consonants and 4 vowels containing length contrast, whileKanakanavu andSaaroa have the fewest phonemes with 13 consonants and 4 vowels.[15]
The tables below list theProto-Austronesian reflexes of individual languages given by Wolff (2010).[16]
| Proto-Austronesian | Pazih | Saisiat | Thao | Atayalic |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *p | p | p | p | p |
| *t | t, s | t, s, ʃ | t, θ | t, c (s) |
| *c | z [dz] | h | t | x, h |
| *k | k | k | k | k |
| *q | Ø | ʔ | q | q, ʔ |
| *b | b | b | f | b- |
| *d | d | r | s | r |
| *j | d | r | s | r |
| *g | k-, -z- [dz], -t | k-, -z- [ð], -z [ð] | k-, -ð-, -ð | k-[17] |
| *ɣ | x | l [ḷ] (> Ø in Tonghœʔ) | ɬ | ɣ, r, Ø |
| *m | m | m | m | m |
| *n | n | n | n | n |
| *ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | n | ŋ |
| *s | s | ʃ | ʃ | s |
| *h | h | h | Ø | h |
| *l | r | l [ḷ] (> Ø in Tonghœʔ) | r | l |
| *ɬ | l | ɬ | ð | l |
| *w | w | w | w | w |
| *y | y | y | y | y |
| Proto-Austronesian | Saaroa | Kanakanavu | Rukai | Bunun | Amis | Kavalan | Puyuma | Paiwan |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *p | p | p | p | p | p | p | p | p |
| *t | t, c | t, c | t, c | t | t | t | t, ʈ | tj [č], ts [c] |
| *c | s, Ø | c | θ, s, Ø | c ([s] in Central & South) | c | s | s | t |
| *k | k | k | k | k | k | k, q | k | k |
| *q | Ø | ʔ | Ø | q (x in Ishbukun) | ɦ | Ø | ɦ | q |
| *b | v | v [β] | b | b | f | b | v [β] | v |
| *d | s | c | ḍ | d | r | z | d, z | dj [j], z |
| *j | s | c | d | d | r | z | d, z | dj [j], z |
| *g | k-, -ɬ- | k-, -l-, -l | g | k-, -Ø-, -Ø | k-, -n-, -n | k-, -n-, -n | h-, -d-, -d | g-, -d-, -d |
| *ɣ | r | r | r, Ø | l | l [ḷ] | ɣ | r | Ø |
| *m | m | m | m | m | m | m | m | m |
| *n | n | n | n | n | n | n | n | n |
| *ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ |
| *s | Ø | s | s | s | s | Ø | Ø | s |
| *h | Ø | Ø | Ø | Ø | h | Ø | Ø | Ø |
| *l | Ø | Ø, l | ñ | h-, -Ø-, -Ø | l [ḷ] | r, ɣ | l [ḷ] | l |
| *ɬ | ɬ | n | ɬ | n | ɬ | n | ɬ | ɬ |
| *w | Ø | Ø | v | v | w | w | w | w |
| *y | ɬ | l | ð | ð | y | y | y | y |
| Proto-Austronesian | Tagalog | Chamorro | Malay | Old Javanese |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *p | p | f | p | p |
| *t | t | t | t | t |
| *c | s | s | s | s |
| *k | k | h | k | k |
| *q | ʔ | ʔ | h | h |
| *b | b | p | b, -p | b, w |
| *d | d-, -l-, -d | h | d, -t | ḍ, r |
| *j | d-, -l-, -d | ch | j, -t | d |
| *g | k-, -l-, -d | Ø | d-, -r-, -r | g-, -r-, -r |
| *ɣ | g | g | r | Ø |
| *m | m | m | m | m |
| *n | n | n | n | n |
| *ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ |
| *s | h | Ø | h | h |
| *h | Ø | Ø | Ø | Ø |
| *l | l | l | l | l |
| *ɬ | n | ñ, n, l | l-/ñ-, -ñ-/-n-, -n | n |
| *w | w | w | Ø, w | w |
| *y | y | y | y | y |
The following table lists reflexes ofProto-Austronesian *j in various Formosan languages (Blust 2009:572).
| Language | Reflex |
|---|---|
| Tsou | Ø |
| Kanakanavu | l |
| Saaroa | ɬ (-ɬ- only) |
| Puyuma | d |
| Paiwan | d |
| Bunun | Ø |
| Atayal | r (in Squliq), g (sporadic), s (sporadic) |
| Sediq | y (-y- only), c (-c only) |
| Pazeh | z ([dz]) (-z- only), d (-d only) |
| Saisiyat | z ([ð]) |
| Thao | z ([ð]) |
| Amis | n |
| Kavalan | n |
| Siraya | n |
The following table lists reflexes of Proto-Austronesian *R in various Formosan languages (Blust 2009:582).
| Language | Reflex |
|---|---|
| Paiwan | Ø |
| Bunun | l |
| Kavalan | ʀ (contrastive uvular rhotic) |
| Basay | l |
| Amis | l |
| Atayal | g; r (before /i/) |
| Sediq | r |
| Pazeh | x |
| Taokas | l |
| Thao | lh (voiceless lateral) |
| Saisiyat | L (retroflex flap) |
| Bashiic (extra-Formosan) | y |
Lenition patterns include (Blust 2009:604-605):
Li (2001) lists the geographical homelands for the following Formosan languages.[18]
