Some people do not eat various specific foods and beverages in conformity with variousreligious,cultural,legal or other societal prohibitions. Many of these prohibitions constitutetaboos. Many food taboos and other prohibitions forbid the meat of a particularanimal, includingmammals (such asrodents),reptiles,amphibians,fish,molluscs,crustaceans andinsects, which may relate to adisgust response being more often associated withmeats than plant-based foods.[1] Some prohibitions are specific to a particular part orexcretion of an animal, while others forgo the consumption ofplants orfungi.
Some food prohibitions can be defined as rules,codified by religion or otherwise, about which foods, or combinations of foods, may not be eaten and how animals are to beslaughtered or prepared. The origins of these prohibitions are varied. In some cases, they are thought to be a result of health considerations or other practical reasons;[2] in others, they relate to humansymbolic systems.[3]
Some foods may be prohibited during weekdays (e.g.,Sunday), during certain religious periods (e.g.,Lent), at certain stages of life (e.g.,pregnancy), or to certain classes of people (e.g.,priests), even if the food is otherwise permitted. On a comparative basis, what may be declared unfit for one group may be perfectly acceptable to another within the same culture or across different cultures. Food taboos usually seem to be intended to protect the human individual from harm, spiritually or physically, but there are numerous other reasons given within cultures for their existence. An ecological or medical background is apparent in many, including some that are seen as religious or spiritual in origin. Food taboos can help utilizing a resource,[4] but when applied to only a subsection of the community, a food taboo can also lead to the monopolization of a food item by those exempted. A food taboo acknowledged by a particular group or tribe as part of their ways, aids in the cohesion of the group, helps that particular group to stand out and maintain its identity in the face of others and therefore creates a feeling of "belonging".[5]
Various religions forbid the consumption of certain types of food. For example,Judaism prescribes a set of rules, calledkashrut, regarding what may and may not be eaten, and notably forbidding the mixing of meat with dairy products.Islam has similar laws, dividing foods intoharam (forbidden) andhalal (permitted).Jains often follow religious directives to observevegetarianism. SomeHindus do not eat beef, and someHindus, especially those from the uppercastes, consider vegetarianism as ideal and practise forms of vegetarianism.[6] In some cases, the process of preparation rather than the food itself comes under scrutiny. For instance, in early medieval Christianity, certain uncooked foods were of dubious status: apenitential ascribed toBede outlined a (mild) penance for those who ate uncooked foods, andSaint Boniface wrote toPope Zachary (in a letter preserved in theBoniface correspondence, no. 87) asking him how longbacon would have to be cured to be proper for consumption.[7] Thekapu system was used inHawaii until 1819.
Aside from formal rules, there are cultural taboos against the consumption of some animals. Within a given society, some meats will be considered to be not for consumption that are outside the range of the generally accepted definition of a foodstuff. Novel meats, i.e. animal-derived food products not familiar to an individual or to a culture, generally provoke adisgust reaction, which may be expressed as a cultural taboo.[8] For example, althoughdog meat is eaten, in certain circumstances, inKorea,Vietnam, andChina, it is considered inappropriate as a food in virtually all Western countries. Likewise,horse meat is rarely eaten in theEnglish-speaking world, although it is part of the national cuisine of countries as widespread asKazakhstan,Japan,Italy, andFrance.
Sometimes food prohibitions enter national or local law, as with the ban on cattleabattoirs in most ofIndia, andhorse slaughter in theUnited States. Even after reversion to Chinese rule,Hong Kong has not lifted its ban on supplying meat from dogs and cats, created duringBritish rule.
Environmentalism,ethical consumerism and otheractivist movements are giving rise to new prohibitions and eating guidelines. A fairly recent addition to cultural food prohibitions is the meat and eggs ofendangered species or animals that are otherwise protected by law or international treaty. Examples of such protected species include some species of whales,sea turtles, andmigratory birds. Similarly,sustainable seafood advisory lists and certification discourage the consumption of certain seafoods due tounsustainable fishing.Organic certification prohibits certainsynthetic chemical inputs during food production, orgenetically modified organisms,irradiation, and the use ofsewage sludge. Thefair trade movement and certification discourage the consumption of food and other goods produced in exploitative working conditions. Othersocial movements generating taboos includelocal food andThe 100-Mile Diet, both of which encourage abstinence from non-locally produced food, andveganism, in which adherents endeavour not to use or consume animal products of any kind.
Judaism forbids the consumption ofamphibians such asfrogs. The restriction is described inLeviticus 11:29-30 and 42–43. Derivative chemical products from amphibians, as well as with other proscribed animals, must be avoided.[9]
In other cultures, foods such asfrog legs are treasured as delicacies, and the animals may be raised commercially in some circumstances.[10] However, environmental concerns over theendangerment of frogs, even possibly pushing them intoextinction, due tooverconsumption has prompted legal action in nations such asFrance to limit their use in food. TheFrench Ministry of Agriculture began taking measures to protect native frog species in 1976, and efforts have continued since. Mass commercial harvesting of the animals was banned in 1980, though international imports as well as private, individual hunting and cooking remain legal in many areas.[10]
In Judaism, theDeuteronomic Code andPriestly Code explicitly prohibit the bat.[11] Bat meat, like that of all predatory land animals, isharam (prohibited) in Islam.[12][13][14]
TheTorah (Leviticus 11:13[15]) explicitly states that theeagle,vulture, andosprey are not to be eaten. A bird now commonly raised for meat in some areas, theostrich, is explicitly banned as food in some interpretations of Leviticus 11:16.[16] Rabbis have frequently inferred that traditions that explicitly prohibitbirds of prey and naturalscavengers create a distinction with other avian species; thus, eatingchickens,ducks,geese, andturkeys is allowed.[9]
In contrast, Islamic dietary rules permit the consumption of ostrich, while birds of prey (defined specifically as those who hunt withclaws andtalons) are forbidden, as in Judaism.
Scavengers and carrion-eaters such as vultures andcrows are avoided as food in many cultures because they are perceived as carriers of disease and unclean, and associated with death. An exception is therook, which was a recognised country dish, and which has, more recently, been served in aScottish restaurant inLondon.[17] InWestern cultures today, most people regardsongbirds as backyard wildlife rather than as food.
Abalut is a developing bird embryo (usually a duck or chicken) that is boiled and eaten from the shell. Part of the Quran includes understanding and respecting the law that any animal products should not be eaten if the animal has not been slaughtered properly, making the animal or animal-product "maytah". Because balut is an egg containing a partly-developed embryo, Muslims believe this makes it "haram", or "forbidden".
Theortolan bunting developed as a more recent taboo food among French gourmets. The tiny birds were captured alive, force-fed, then drowned in Armagnac, "roasted whole and eaten that way, bones and all, while the diner draped his head with a linen napkin to preserve the precious aromas and, some believe, to hide from God."[18]
The eating ofcamels is prohibited by the Torah inDeuteronomy 14:7 andLeviticus 11:4. The Torah considers the camel unclean, even though it chews the cud, orregurgitates, the way bovines, sheep, goats, deer, antelope, and giraffes (all of which arekosher) do, because it does not meet thecloven hoof criterion. Like these animals, camels (and llamas) areruminants with a multi-chambered stomach. Camels areeven-toed ungulates, with feet split in two. However, a camel's feet form soft pads rather than hard hooves.
In Islam, the eating of camels is allowed, and is indeed traditional in the Islamic heartland inSaudi Arabia and theArabian Peninsula.[citation needed]
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Cattle hold a traditional place as objects of reverence in countries such asIndia. Some Hindus, particularlyBrahmins, are vegetarian and strictly abstain from eating meat. All of those who do eat meat abstain from the consumption ofbeef, as the cow holds a sacred place inHinduism.[19] For example, tradition states that thegoddessKamadhenu manifests herself as a wish-granting divine cow, with such stories repeated over generations.[20]
In contrast to cow slaughter, consumption ofdairy products such as milk, yogurt, and particularlyghee (a form ofbutter) is highly common in India. Cow-derived products play a significant role inHinduism with milk particularly being highly revered, often being used in holy ceremonies.[20]
Bullocks were the primary source of agricultural power and transportation in the early days, and as India adopted an agricultural lifestyle, the cow proved to be a very useful animal. This respect, stemming out of necessity, led to abstaining from killing cows for food; for example, if a famine-stricken village kills and eats its bullocks, they will not be available to pull the plough and the cart when next planting season comes. However, little evidence has been found to support this conjecture. Areas suffering from famine may resort to consuming cattle in efforts to survive until the next season.
By Indian law, the slaughter of female cattle is banned in almost allIndian states exceptKerala,West Bengal and theseven north eastern states.[21] A person involved in either cow slaughter or its illegal transportation could be jailed in many states.[22] Slaughter of cows is an extremely provocative issue for many Hindus.
SomeChinese Buddhists discourage the consumption of beef, although it is not considered taboo. However, forSinhalese Buddhists, it is taboo and considered to be ungrateful to kill the animal whose milk and labour provides livelihoods to manySinhalese people.
Burmese Buddhists also have a taboo against eating beef, because they consider cows as an animal responsible for working in the fields with human beings. However, it is not strictly considered taboo in cities such asMandalay andYangon.[citation needed]
In the town ofKudus on theIndonesian island ofJava, there is also a taboo on eating beef, despite most people being Muslim, to avoid offending Hindus.[23]
A chewing gum sales ban has been in place since 1992 in Singapore. It is currently not illegal to chew gum inSingapore, merely to import it and sell it, with certain exceptions.[24] Since 2004, an exception has existed for therapeutic, dental, and nicotinechewing gum,[25] which can be bought from a doctor or registered pharmacist.[26]
Ibrahim ibn Yaqub, a Jewish traveler who visited Slavic territories in the 10th century, described the meat-eating habits of the ancestors of Poles. He saw that these Slavs did not eatchickens because they believed chicken causes a loss of strength and a red rash.[27] Some who practiceSlavic paganism will abide by this taboo to this day.
Almost all types of non-piscineseafood, such asshellfish,lobster,shrimp orcrayfish, are forbidden by Judaism because such animals live in water but do not have bothfins andscales.[28]
As a general rule, all seafood is permissible in the 3madh'hab ofSunni Islam except Hanafi school of thought. TheJa'fari school ofIslamic jurisprudence, which is followed by mostShia Muslims, prohibits non-piscine (lacking scales) seafood, with the exception of shrimp.
Honey is concentratednectar andhoneydew which has beenregurgitated bybees. It is considered kosher even thoughhoney bees are not, an apparent exception to the normal rule that products of an unclean animal are also unclean. This topic is covered in theTalmud and is explained to be permissible on the grounds that the bee does not originally make the first honey, the flower does, while the bees store and dehydrate the liquid into honey. This is different fromroyal jelly, which is produced by bees directly and is considered non-kosher.[29]
Some vegans avoid honey as they would any otheranimal product.
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InJudaism andSamaritanism, certainlocusts could bekosher foods (Leviticus 11:22). Otherwise,insects are considered nonkosher. Kashrut also requires that practitioners check other foods carefully for insects.[30]
In Islam, the eating of most insects is prohibited, but locusts are considered lawful food[31] and do not require ritual slaughtering.
InWestern countries, eating dog meat is generally considered taboo, though that taboo has been broken under threat of starvation in the past. Dog meat has been eaten in every major German crisis at least since the time ofFrederick the Great, and is commonly referred to as "blockade mutton".[32] In the early 20th century, consumption of dog meat in Germany was common.[33][34] Suspicions about the provenance of Frankfurter meat sold by German immigrants in the United States led to the coinage of the term 'hot dog'.[citation needed] In 1937, a meat inspection law targetingtrichinella was introduced for pigs, dogs,boars, foxes,badgers, and other carnivores.[35] Dog meat has been prohibited in Germany since 1986.[36] In 2009 a scandal erupted when a farm near the Polish town ofCzęstochowa was discovered rearing dogs to be rendered down intosmalec—lard.[37]
InSwitzerland, an article in 2012 by The Local reported the continued consumption of dogs within the nation. Speculation arose suggesting that farmers in the German-speaking cantons of Appenzell and St. Gallen were known to personally slaughter these animals.[38]
According to the ancientHindu scriptures (cf.Manusmṛti and medicinal texts likeSushruta Samhita),dog's meat was regarded as the most unclean (and rather poisonous) food possible. Dog's meat is also regarded as unclean under Jewish and Islamic dietary laws;[39] therefore, consumption of dog meat is forbidden by both of those religious traditions.
InIrish mythology, legend recounts howCú Chulainn, the great hero ofUlster whose name meansCulann's Hound, was presented with aMorton's fork, forcing him to either break hisgeis (taboo) about eating dog meat or declining hospitality; Cú Chulainn chose to eat the meat, leading ultimately to his death.
InMexico, in thepre-Columbian era, a hairless breed of dog namedxoloitzcuintle was commonly eaten.[40] After colonization, this custom stopped.
InEast Asia, most countries rarely consume dog meat with the exception ofChina,Vietnam,Northand South Korea either because of Islamic orBuddhist values or animal rights as in Taiwan.Manchus have a prohibition against the eating of dog meat, which is sometimes consumed by the Manchus' neighboringNortheastern Asian peoples. The Manchus also avoid the wearing of hats made of dog's fur. In addition to Manchus,Chinese Mongol,Miao,Muslims,Tibetan,Yao andYi have a taboo against dog meat.[41] InIndonesia, due to its majority Islamic population, consuming dog meat is prohibited, with exception of ChristianBatak andMinahasan ethnic groups that traditionally consumed dog meat.
TheUrapmin people of theNew Guinea Highlands do not kill or eat dogs, unlike some neighboring tribes, nor do they let dogs breathe on their food.[42]
Bears are not consideredkosher animals in Judaism.[43] Bear meat, like allpredatoryterrestrial animals, is forbidden by Islam.
There is a strong taboo against eating cats in manyWestern parts of the world, including most of theAmericas andEurope. Cat meat is forbidden by Jewish and Islamic law[44] as both religions forbid the eating of carnivores. Cats are commonly regarded aspets in Western countries, or as working animals, kept to controlvermin, not as a food animal, and consumption of cats is thus seen as a barbaric act by a large part of the population in those countries.
InSwitzerland, a 2012 report by The Local also highlighted the consumption of cats within the country.[38]
Consumption of eggs is permissible in all Abrahamic faiths.
Jains abstain from eating eggs.[45] ManyHindu and OrthodoxSikh vegetarians also refrain from eating eggs.[46][47]
An egg that naturally contains a spot of blood may not be eaten under Jewish and Islamic tradition, but eggs without any blood are commonly consumed (and are not considered to be meat, so may be eaten with dairy).[9]
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Buddhists are forbidden from eating elephant meat.[48]
Elephant meat is also not considered kosher byJewish dietary laws because elephants do not havecloven hooves and are notruminants.
Some scholars ofIslamic dietary laws have ruled that it is forbidden forMuslims to eat elephant because elephants fall under the prohibited category of fanged or predatory animals.[49][50]
Hindus strictly avoid any contact with elephant meat due to the importance of the godGanesha who is widely worshipped by Hindus.[51]
TheKalika Purana distinguishesbali (sacrifice) andmahabali (great sacrifice) for the ritual killing ofgoats andelephants respectively, though the reference to humans inShakti theology is symbolic and done ineffigy in modern times.[52]
Speak not to me with a mouth that eats fish
— Somali nomad taunt[53]
Among theSomali people, mostclans have a taboo against the consumption of fish, and do not intermarry with the few occupational clans that do eat it.[54][55]
There are taboos on eating fish among many uplandpastoralists andagriculturalists (and even some coastal peoples) inhabiting parts ofEthiopia,Eritrea,Somalia,Kenya, and northernTanzania. This is sometimes referred to as the "Cushitic fish-taboo", as Cushitic speakers are believed to have been responsible for the introduction of fish avoidance toEast Africa, though not all Cushitic groups avoid fish. The zone of the fish taboo roughly coincides with the area whereCushitic languages are spoken, and as a general rule, speakers ofNilo-Saharan andSemitic languages do not have this taboo, and indeed many are watermen.[55][56] The fewBantu andNilotic groups in East Africa that do practice fish avoidance also reside in areas whereCushites appear to have lived in earlier times. Within East Africa, the fish taboo is found no further than Tanzania. This is attributed to the local presence of thetsetse fly and in areas beyond, which likely acted as a barrier to further southern migrations bywandering pastoralists, the principal fish-avoiders.Zambia andMozambique's Bantus were therefore spared subjugation by pastoral groups, and they consequently nearly all consume fish.[55]
There is also another center of fish avoidance inSouthern Africa, among mainlyBantu speakers. It is not clear whether this disinclination developed independently or whether it was introduced. It is certain, however, that no avoidance of fish occurs among southern Africa's earliest inhabitants, theKhoisan. Nevertheless, since the Bantu of southern Africa also share various cultural traits with the pastoralists further north in East Africa, it is believed that, at an unknown date, the taboo against the consumption of fish was similarly introduced from East Africa by cattle-herding peoples who somehow managed to get their livestock past the aforementioned tsetse fly endemic regions.[55]
Certain species of fish, such as the freshwatereel (Anguillidae) and all species ofcatfish, are also forbidden by Judaism. Although they live in water, they appear to have no scales (except under a microscope) (see Leviticus 11:10-13[57]). Sunni Muslim laws are more flexible in this. Catfish and shark are generally seen as halal as they are special types of fish. Eel is generally considered permissible in the four Sunnimadh'hab. The Ja'fari jurisprudence followed by most Shia Muslims forbids all species of fish that do not have scales, as well as all shell fish species except prawns.[58]
Many tribes of theSouthwestern United States, including theNavajo,Apache, andZuñi, have a taboo against fish and other aquatic animals, includingwaterfowl.[59]
The people of theBlackfoot Confederacy have a taboo against the consumption against fish (as well as birds including waterfowl, though the fish taboo has endured the most through generations). According to a lecture by Grant Manyheads ofBlackfoot Crossing Historical Park,[60] the Blackfoot's cuisine was based in a belief that only certain animals, those with four legs and hooves and which grazed on grass, were seen as "clean" and thus suitable for consumption. This meant that any other animals, including fish, birds (especially waterfowl), and clawed animals such as bears and dogs or wolves, were not considered suitable or clean enough to eat. However, this taboo was broken in times of need and starvation. Breaking the taboo was seen as an especially desperate act among the Blackfoot, but was not seen to carry any particular religious or spiritual repercussions, hence the allowance of breaking the taboo out of desperation.
Norse settlers in Greenland (10th–15th centuries AD) may have developed a taboo against fish consumption, as recounted inJared Diamond'sCollapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. This is unusual, asNorsemen did not generally have a taboo against fish, Diamond noting that "Fish bones account for much less than 0.1% of animal bones recovered at Greenland Norse archeological sites, compared to between 50 and 95% at most contemporaryIceland, northernNorway, andShetland sites."[61][62][63] However, this has been disputed by archaeologists.[64]
Foie gras, the fatty liver of geese that have been force-fed according to French law,[65] has been the subject ofcontroversy and prohibitions exist in different parts of the world. In July 2014, India banned the import of foie gras[66][67] making it the first[68][69] and only[70] country in the world to do so, causing dismay among some of the nation's chefs.[66] In Australia, the production of foie gras is currently forbidden, though it is legal to import it.[71] In August 2003, Argentina banned foie gras production as it is considered a mistreatment or an act of cruelty to animals.[72] In 2023 foie gras production was banned in theFlemish Region of Belgium.[73]
Many countries observe this as a delicacy but it is a taboo in most countries. Considered as corpses, fetuses of goats and sheep are a delicacy in Anglo-Indian culture, despite being taboo in both parent cultures (English and Indian). This Anglo-Indian dish is known as "kutti pi"[74] (fetus bag).[dubious –discuss]
VedicBrahmins, GaudiyaVaishnavas,tantriks and someBuddhist priests abstain fromfungi, which are eschewed as they grow at night.[citation needed]
InSweden and most ofScandinavia mushrooms and fungi were traditionally not eaten due to strong associations with folklore. This began to change in the 17th century, when theFrench influenced upper class adopted mushrooms into their diet, and began to promote the consumption of mushrooms throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, which has since lead to mushroom eating and collecting becoming normalised.[75]
Guinea pigs, orcuy, are commonly eaten in Peru, in the southwestern cities and villages ofColombia, and among some populations in the highlands ofEcuador, mostly in theAndes highlands.[76] Cuyes can be found on the menu of restaurants inLima and other cities in Peru, as well as inPasto, Colombia. Guinea pig meat is exported to the United States and European nations.[77][78] In 2004, theNew York City Department of Parks and Recreation took legal action to stop vendors servingcuy at an Ecuadorian festival inFlushing Meadows Park.[79]New York State allows the consumption of guinea pigs, butNew York City prohibits it. Accusations of cultural persecution have since been leveled.[80]
Althoughgiraffes are technically considered kosher (since they chew their cuds and have split hooves), the more orthodox interpretation of Kashrut still forbids consumption of the meat, therefore marking the giraffe, despite with otherwise permissible characteristics, as non-kosher. The reason is the animal has no tradition of permissibility, meaning not allowed to be eaten, despite its signs of being a kosher animal. In addition, its large size and more aggressive behaviour puts a strain on logistics when performingshechita (ritual slaughtering). Their vulnerable status has also played a role in prohibition by many rabbis. The long neck of the giraffe being difficult to perform the slaughter is not the reason why giraffe is non-kosher, despite this sometimes being presumed.[81][82][83]
Some adherents of theGreek Orthodox Church avoidbasil due to its association with the cross of Christ. It is believed that the cross was discovered in 325 AD by Saint Helen on a hill covered in beautiful, fragrant basil bushes, a hitherto unknown plant. The plant was namedβασιλικόν φυτόν (basilikón fytón) "royal plant" and today is grown and admired rather than eaten. Fine basil plants are brought to church every year on 14 September to commemorate this legend in a celebration known as theElevation of the Holy Cross.[84]
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Horse meat is part of the cuisine of many countries in Europe, but is taboo in some religions and many countries. It is forbidden byJewish law, because the horse is not a ruminant, nor does it have cloven hooves. Similarly to dogs, eating horses was a taboo for theCastro culture in NorthwesternPortugal, and it is still a counter-cultural practice in the region.[85]
Horse meat is forbidden by some sects ofChristianity. In 732 CE,Pope Gregory III instructed Saint Boniface to suppress thepagan practice of eating horses, calling it a "filthy and abominable custom".[86] TheChristianisation of Iceland in 1000 CE was achieved only when the Church promised thatIcelanders could continue to eat horsemeat; once the Church had consolidated its power, the allowance was discontinued.[87] Horsemeat is still popular in Iceland and is sold and consumed in the same way as beef,lamb and pork.
InIslam, opinions vary as to the permissibility of horse meat. Some cite ahadith forbidding it to Muslims, but others doubt its validity and authority. Wild horses and asses are generally seen as halal while domesticated donkeys are viewed as forbidden. Various Muslim cultures have differed in the attitude in eating the meat. Historically, Turks and Persians have eaten the meat, while in North Africa this is rare.
In Canada, horse meat is legal. Most Canadian horse meat is exported toContinental Europe or Japan.[88] In the United States, sale and consumption of horse meat is illegal inCalifornia[89] andIllinois.[90] However, it was sold in the US during WW II, since beef was expensive, rationed and destined for the troops. The last horse meat slaughterhouse in the US was closed in 2007.[88] Nevertheless, discarded leisure, sport and work horses are collected and sold at auctions. They are shipped across the country by transporters to the borders of Canada in the north and Mexico in the south to be sold to horse meat butchers.[91][92] The issue of horse consumption in the UK and Ireland was raised in 2013 with regards to the2013 horse meat contamination scandal.
Horse meat is generally avoided in theBalkans (though not in Slovenia), either due to the horse being considered a noble animal or because eating horse meat is associated with war-time famine. However, it has a smallniche market in Serbia.[93]
Of all the taboo meat, human flesh ranks as the most heavily proscribed. In recent times, humans have consumed the flesh of fellow humans in rituals and out of insanity, hatred, or overriding hunger – never as a common part of their diet, but it is thought that the practice was once widespread among all humans.[94]
TheFore people of Papua New Guinea engaged infunerary cannibalism until the Australian government prohibited the practice in the late 1950s. Cannibalism was how the prion diseasekuru spread, though the link was unproven until 1967.[95]
The consumption of human flesh is forbidden by Hinduism,[96] Islam,[97] and Rabbinic Judaism.[98]
Monkey brains is a dish consisting of, at least partially, thebrain of some species ofmonkey orape. InWestern popular culture, its consumption is repeatedly portrayed and debated, often in the context of portraying exotic cultures as exceptionally cruel, callous, and/or strange.[99]
Monkeys are revered animals in India, largely because of the monkey godHanuman. Many Hindus are vegetarian and do not eat any type of meat, including monkeys. Meat eating Indians also do not kill or eat monkeys. Killing and eating monkeys (or other animals which are considered wild) is both taboo and illegal in India.[citation needed]
In traditionalIslamic dietary laws, the eating of monkeys is alsoforbidden.[100]
In Malagasy culture, lemurs are considered to havesouls (ambiroa) which can get revenge if mocked while alive or if killed in a cruel fashion. Because of this, lemurs, like many other elements of daily life, have been a source oftaboos, known locally asfady, which can be based around stories with four basic principles. A village or region may believe that a certain type of lemur may be theancestor of the clan. They may also believe that a lemur's spirit may get revenge. Alternatively, the animal may appear as a benefactor. Lemurs are also thought to impart their qualities, good or bad, onto human babies.[101] In general,fady extend beyond a sense of the forbidden, but can include events that bring bad luck.[102]
Primate species offered fresh and smoked in 2009 at a wildlife market by Liberia'sCavally River includedchimpanzee (Pan troglodytes),Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana),putty-nosed monkey (C. nictitans),lesser spot-nosed monkey (C. petaurista),Campbell's mona monkey (C. campbelli),sooty mangabey (Cercocebus atys),king colobus (Colobus polykomos),olive colobus (Procolobus verus),western red colobus (P. badius).
Between 1983 and 2002, theGabon populations ofwestern gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) andcommon chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) were estimated to have declined by 56%. This decline was primarily caused by the commercial hunting, which was facilitated by the extended infrastructure forlogging purposes.[103]
In the late 1990s, fresh and smokedbonobo (Pan paniscus) carcasses were observed inBasankusu in theProvince of Équateur in the Congo Basin.[104]
Some people consider consumption of primates to be close tohuman cannibalism due to monkeys and apes being close relatives ofhuman beings.[citation needed]
Kangaroo meat has long been a significant part of someindigenous Australian diets. Kangaroo meat was legalised for human consumption in South Australia in 1980, though in other states it could only be sold as pet food until 1993. Kangaroos, along with most other native Australian animals, are protected under Australian law on a state and federal level, but licences to kill kangaroos can be acquired for hunting or culling purposes. Though kangaroo meat was once unpopular with modern Australians,[105] it has become a lot more popular in recent years due to its reputation as a low-fat and low-emission meat, and can be found in most supermarkets.[106]
Kangaroo meat is illegal inCalifornia. The ban was first imposed in 1971; a moratorium was put in place in 2007, allowing the importation of the meat, but the ban was re-implemented in 2015.[107] Kangaroo meat is also not considered biblicallykosher byJews orAdventists.[108] However, it is consideredhalal according to Muslim dietary standards, because kangaroos are herbivorous.[109]
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Islamic law, Judaic law (includingNoahide Law), and some laws of some Christians forbid any portion that is cut from a live animal (Genesis 9:4,[110] as interpreted in the Talmud,Sanhedrin 59a[111]). However, in the case of aben pekuah where a live offspring is removed from the mother's womb, these restrictions do not apply. Eating oysters raw,ikizukuri, and other similar cases would be considered a violation of this in Jewish law.[112]
Examples of the eating of animals that are still alive includeeating live seafood, such as "rawoyster on the half shell" andikizukuri (live fish).Sashimi using live animals has been banned in some countries.
Offal is the internal organs of butchered animals, and may refer to parts of the carcass such as the head and feet ("trotters") in addition to organ meats such assweetbreads andkidney. Offal is a traditional part of manyEuropean andAsian cuisines, including such dishes as thesteak and kidney pie in the United Kingdom orcallos a la madrileña in Spain.Haggis has beenScotland'snational dish since the time ofRobert Burns. In northeast Brazil, there is a similar dish to haggis called"''buchada''", made with goats' stomach.[113]
Except for heart,tongue (beef),liver (chicken, beef, or pork), and intestines used as naturalsausagecasings, organ meats consumed in the U.S. tend to be regional or ethnic specialities; for example,tripe asmenudo ormondongo amongLatinos and Hispanos,chitterlings in theSouthern United States,scrapple on the Eastern Seaboard,fried-brain sandwiches in theMidwest, and beeftesticles calledRocky Mountain oysters or "prairie oysters" in the west. In Argentina and other Spanish language countries, bull's testicles are served ashuevos de toro or 'bull's eggs'.
In some regions, such as theEuropean Union,brains and other organs which can transmitbovine spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow disease") and similar diseases have now been banned from thefood chain asspecified risk materials.
Although eating the stomach of a goat, cow, sheep, or buffalo might be taboo,[where?] ancientcheesemaking techniques utilize stomachs (which containrennet) for turningmilk intocheese, a potentially taboo process. Newer techniques for making cheese include a biochemical process with bacterial enzymes similar to rennin and chymosin. This means that theprocess by which cheese is made (and not the cheese itself) is a factor in determining whether it is forbidden or allowed by strict vegetarians.[citation needed]
Poppy seeds are used as condiments in many cultures, but the trace amounts ofmorphine andcodeine present in the seeds can lead to afalse positive when administering a drug test.[114] InSingapore, poppy seeds are classified as "prohibited goods" by theCentral Narcotics Bureau (CNB).[115]
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) data reportspork as the most widely eaten meat in the world. Consumption of pigs is forbidden by Islam, Judaism and certainChristian denominations, such asSeventh-day Adventists. This prohibition is set out in the holy texts of the religions concerned, e.g.Qur'an 2:173, 5:3, 6:145 and 16:115,[116] Leviticus 11:7-8[117] and Deuteronomy 14:8.[118] Pigs were also taboo in at least three other cultures of the ancient Middle East: thePhoenicians,Egyptians andBabylonians.[119] In some instances, the taboo extended beyond eating pork, and it was also taboo to touch or even look at pigs.[119][120]
The original reason for this taboo is debated.Maimonides seems to have thought the uncleanness of pigs was self-evident, but mentions with particular aversion their propensity to eatfeces.[119] In the 19th century, some people attributed the pig taboo in theMiddle East to the danger of the parasitetrichina, but this explanation is now out of favour.[119]James George Frazer suggested that, in ancient Israel, Egypt and Syria, the pig was originally a sacred animal, which for that reason could not be eaten or touched; the taboo survived to a time when the pig was no longer regarded as sacred, and was therefore explained by reference to its being unclean.[120]
More recently,Marvin Harris posited that pigs are not suited for being kept in the Middle East on an ecological and socio-economical level; for example, pigs are not suited to living in arid climates because they require more water than other animals to keep them cool, and instead of grazing they compete with humans for foods such as grains. As such, raising pigs was seen as a wasteful and decadent practice.[119] Another explanation offered for the taboo is that pigs areomnivorous, not discerning between meat or vegetation in their natural dietary habits. The willingness to consume meat sets them apart from most other domesticated animals which are commonly eaten (cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) who would naturally eat only plants.[121]Mary Douglas has suggested that the reason for the taboo against the pig in Judaism is three-fold: (i) it transgresses the category of ungulates, because it has a split hoof but does not chew the cud, (ii) it eats carrion and (iii) it was eaten by non-Israelites.[122]
Whilepork alternatives (for example, byImpossible Foods) do not contain actual pork meat, some conservative religious groups, such as Islam, regard it as forbidden, similar to its meat-based counterpart as it is the saidharam or non-kosher product the pork alternative is trying to mimic and present.[123][124][125][126] Lab-grown pork might also be considered haram or non-kosher.[127][128]
The book of Leviticus in theBible classifies therabbit asunclean because it does not have a split hoof, even though it does chew and reingest partially digested material (equivalent to "chewing the cud" among ruminants).[129] The consumption of rabbit is allowed in Sunni Islam,[130] and is popular in several majority-Sunni countries (e.g. Egypt, where it is a traditional ingredient inmolokheyya), but it is forbidden in the Ja'fari jurisprudence ofTwelver Shia Islam.[131]
In most Western cultures,rats andmice are considered either uncleanvermin or pets and thus unfit for human consumption, traditionally being seen as carriers ofplague.
InGhana,Thryonomys swinderianus locally referred to as "Akrantie", "Grasscutter" and (incorrectly) "Bush rat" is a common food item. The proper common name for this rodent is "Greater Cane Rat", though actually it is not a rat at all and is a close relative ofporcupines and guinea pigs that inhabitAfrica, south of theSaharan Desert.[132] In 2003, the U.S. barred the import of this and other rodents from Africa because of an outbreak of at least nine human cases ofmonkeypox, an illness never before seen in theWestern Hemisphere.[133]
Consumption of any sort of rodent, or material originating from rodents, is forbidden by Judaism[9] and Islam.
Judaism[9][134] and Islam forbid the consumption ofreptiles, such ascrocodiles andsnakes. In other cultures, foods such asalligator are treasured as delicacies, and the animals areraised commercially.
In certain versions of Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism, consumption of vegetables of theoniongenus are restricted. Adherents believe that these excite damaging passions. Many Hindus discourage eating onion and garlic along with non-vegetarian food during festivals orHindu holy months of Shrawan, Puratassi and Kartik. However, shunning onion and garlic is not very popular among Hindus as compared to avoiding non-vegetarian foods, so many people do not follow this custom.[135]
Kashmiri Brahmins forbid "strong flavored" foods. This encompasses garlic, onion, and spices such asblack pepper andchili pepper, believing that pungent flavors on the tongue inflame the baser emotions.
Jains not only abstain from consumption of meat, but also do not eatroot vegetables (such as carrots, potatoes, radish, turnips, etc) as doing so kills the plant and they believe inahimsa. In the hierarchy of living entities, overwintering plants such as onions are ranked higher than food crops such as wheat and rice. The ability of onions to observe the changing of the seasons and bloom in spring is believed to be an additional 'sense' absent in lower plants. The amount of bad karma generated depends on the number of senses the creature possesses and so it is thought prudent to avoid eating onions. This also means that in some North Indian traditions, effectively all overwintering plants are considered taboo.
ChineseBuddhist cuisine traditionally prohibitsgarlic,Allium chinense,asafoetida,shallot, andAllium victorialis (victory onion or mountain leek).
InYazidism, the eating oflettuce[136] andbutter beans is taboo. The Muslim religious teacher and scholar, Falah Hassan Juma, links the sect's belief of evil found in lettuce to its long history of persecution by Muslims. Historical theory claims one ruthless potentate who controlled the city ofMosul in the 13th century ordered an early Yazidi saint executed. The enthusiastic crowd then pelted the corpse with heads of lettuce.
Thefollowers of Pythagoras were vegetarians, and "Pythagorean" at one time came to mean "vegetarian". However,their creed prohibited the eating of beans. The reason is unclear: perhaps theflatulence they cause, perhaps as protection from potentialfavism, but most likely formagico-religious reasons.[137] One legend about Pythagoras' death states that he was killed after he chose not to run through a fava bean field to escape his enemies.[citation needed]
Vegetables likebroccoli andcauliflower, while not taboo, may be avoided by observant Jews and other religions due to the possibility of insects or worms hiding within the numerous crevices. Likewise, fruits such asblackberries andraspberries are recommended by kashrut agencies to be avoided as they cannot be cleaned thoroughly enough without destroying the fruit.[138]
The commonEgyptian dishmulukhiyah, a soup whose primary ingredient isjute leaves (which did not have any other culinary purpose), was banned by theFatimidCaliphAl-Hakim bi-Amr Allah sometime during his reign (996-1021 CE). The ban applied to mulukhiyah, and also to other foodstuffs said to be eaten by Sunnis.[139] While the ban was eventually lifted after the end of his reign, theDruze, who hold Al-Hakim in high regard and give him quasi-divine authority, continue to respect the ban, and do not eatmulukhiyah of any kind to this day.
Sunni Islam permits Muslims to consume the flesh of whales that have died of natural causes as there is a famous Sunni hadith which cites Muhammad's approval of such.[140] Whale meat is forbidden (haram) in Shia Islam as whales do not have scales. In much of the world, whale meat is not eaten due to the endangerment of whales but it is not traditionally forbidden. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, it is illegal to import whale meat into the country.[141]
Some religions – including Buddhism,[142] Islam, Jainism,Rastafari movement,Baháʼí Faith, and various branches of Christianity such as theBaptists, thePentecostals,Methodists, theLatter-day Saints, Seventh-day Adventists and theIglesia ni Cristo – forbid or discourage the consumption ofalcoholic beverages.
The Hebrew Bible describes aNazirite vow (Numbers 6:1-21[143]) that includesabstinence from alcohol, specificallywine and probablybarley beer (according to theSeptuagint translation and theBauer lexicon:σικερα, from theAkkadian shikaru, forbarley beer). TheNew JPS translation is: "wine and any other intoxicant". Other versions such as the NIV prohibit both alcohol and all alcohol derived products such as wine vinegar. There is no general taboo against alcohol in Judaism.
There are also cultural taboos against the consumption of alcohol, reflected for example in theTeetotalism orTemperance movement. There is also something of a cultural taboo in several countries, against the consumption of alcohol by women during pregnancy for health reasons, as seen, for example, in theMaternity Protection Convention, 2000 byILO.
Absinthe
Absinthe was made illegal in the United States in 1912 because of its high alcohol percentage. Absinthe was legalized again in 2007. It was rumored to have been a cause for hallucinations, giving it the nickname "The Green Fairy."[144]
Some religions prohibit drinking or eating blood or food made from blood. In Islam the consumption of blood is prohibited (Haram).Halal animals should be properly slaughtered to drain out the blood. Unlike in other traditions, this is not because blood is revered or holy, but simply because blood is consideredritually unclean orNajis, with certain narratives prescribingablutions (in the case of no availability of water) if contact is made with it. In Judaism all mammal and bird meat (not fish) issalted to remove the blood. Jews follow the teaching in Leviticus,[145] that since "the life of the animal is in the blood" or "blood was reserved for the forgiveness of sins and thus reserved for God", no person may eat (or drink) the blood.Iglesia ni Cristo andJehovah's Witnesses prohibit eating or drinking any blood.[146]
According to the Bible, blood is only to be used for special or sacred purposes in connection with worship (Exodus chapters 12, 24, 29,Matthew 26:29 andHebrews[147]). In thefirst century, Christians, both former Jews (theJewish Christians), and newGentile converts, were in dispute as to which particular features ofMosaic law were to be retained and upheld by them. TheApostolic Decree suggested that, among other things, it was necessary to abstain from consuming blood:
For it seemed good to theHoly Ghost, and to us, to lay upon you no greater burden than these necessary things;That ye abstain from meats offered toidols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and fromfornication: from which if ye keep yourselves, ye shall do well, Fare ye well.
"Hot drinks" are taboo for members ofthe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.[148] The term is misleading as the ban is applied exclusively tocoffee andtea (i.e. nothot cocoa orherbal teas). TheWord of Wisdom, a code of health used by church members, outlines prohibited and allowed substances. While not banned, someMormons avoidcaffeine in general, includingcola drinks.[149][150][151][152] Members of theSeventh-day Adventist Church also generally avoid caffeinated drinks.[citation needed]
There is a widely reported story, possibly apocryphal, that around the year 1600, some Catholics urgedPope Clement VIII to ban coffee, calling it "devil's beverage". After tasting the beverage, the pope is said to have remarked that the drink was "so delicious that it would be a sin to let only misbelievers drink it."[153] (See theHistory of coffee.)
Whilehuman breast milk is universally accepted forinfant nutrition, some cultures see the consumption of breast milk after weaning as taboo.[154]
Kashrut, the Jewish food regulations, classify all permissible foods intothree categories: meat products, dairy products, and others, which are considered to be neither (including not just vegetable products, but also fish and eggs). A meal or dish may not contain both meat and dairy products. As well, meat and fish may not be cooked together, nor fish and milk, although fish cooked with other dairy products is permitted.[citation needed]
InItalian cuisine, there is a widespread taboo on serving cheese with seafood,[155][156][157] although there are several exceptions.
In the Torah, there is thebishul akum law, in which the food that has abishul akum status means that it was fully cooked by a non-Jew and thus forbidden, even though the ingredients used to prepare the food were initially kosher in and of themselves and the prohibited combinations were to be avoided.[158]
Failing patristic authority, the pope was somewhat at a loss for an answer, finally deciding that it could be eaten smoked or roasted over the fire (presumably at any time) but, if eaten raw, only after Easter (that is, after curing for a minimum of three months, if the hogs had been slaughtered at the beginning of winter).
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)One should not consume elephant flesh ... horse flesh ... dog flesh ... snake flesh ... lion flesh ... tiger flesh ... leopard flesh ... bear flesh ... hyena flesh. Whoever should do so: an offense of wrong doing.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
