Theflora of Scotland is an assemblage of native plant species including over 1,600vascular plants, more than 1,500lichens and nearly 1,000bryophytes. The total number of vascular species is low by world standards but lichens and bryophytes are abundant and the latter form a population of global importance. Various populations of rarefern exist, although the impact of 19th-century collectors threatened the existence of several species. The flora is generally typical of the north-west European part of thePalearctic realm and prominent features of theScottish flora includeborealCaledonian forest (much reduced from its natural extent), heathermoorland and coastalmachair.^[1] In addition to the native species of vascular plants there are numerous non-native introductions, now believed to make up some 43% of the species in the country.^[2][3]

There are a variety of important tree species and specimens; in particular, theFortingall Yew may be the oldest tree in Europe. TheArran whitebeams,Shetland mouse-ear andScottish primrose areendemic flowering plants and there are a variety of endemic mosses and lichens. Conservation of the natural environment is well developed and various organisations play an important role in the stewardship of the country's flora. Numerous references to the country's flora appear in folklore, song and poetry.

Scotland enjoys a diversity of temperate ecologies, incorporating bothdeciduous andconiferouswoodlands, andmoorland,montane,estuarine,freshwater, oceanic, andtundralandscapes.^[4] Approximately 19% of Scotland is wooded, 14.5% of which is non-native forestry plantation, but prior to human clearing there were much larger areas ofborealCaledonian andbroad-leaved forest.^[5] Although reduced significantly (some estimates are as high as 98%),^{[6][better source needed]} significant remnants of the native Scots Pine woodlands can be found in places.^{[7][page needed]} Some 21 to 31% of Scotland is covered by heather moorland, while over 20% of Scotland is covered bypeatland.^[8]Caithness andSutherland have some of the largest and most intact areas ofblanket bog in the world, supporting a distinctive wildlife community.^[9][10] 75% of Scotland's land is classed as agricultural (including some of its moorland) with urban areas accounting for around 3% of the total. The number of islands with terrestrial vegetation is nearly 800, about 600 of them lying off the west coast. Scotland has more than 90% of the volume and 70% of the total surface area offresh water in the United Kingdom. There are more than 30,000 freshwaterlochs and 6,600 river systems.^[4]

Below the tree line there are several zones ofclimax forest.Birch dominates to the west and north, Scots pine with birch andoak in the easternHighlands and oak (bothQuercus robur andQ. petrea) with birch in theCentral Lowlands andBorders.^[11] The Scottish coastline includesmachair, a fertile grassy duneland formed as the land rose after the last ice age. Machairs have received considerable ecological andconservational attention.^[12]

The total number of vascular species is low by world standards, partly due to the effects ofPleistocene glaciations (which eliminated all or nearly all species) and the subsequent creation of theNorth Sea (which created a barrier to re-colonisation).^[1][13] Nonetheless, there are a variety of important species and assemblages. Heather moor containing ling,bell heather,cross-leaved heath,bog myrtle andfescues is generally abundant and contains various smaller flowering species such ascloudberry andalpine ladies-mantle.^[14] Cliffs and mountains host a diversity of arctic and alpine plants includingalpine pearlwort,mossy cyphel,mountain avens andfir clubmoss.^[15] On theHebridean islands of the west coast, there arePlantago pastures, which grow well in locations exposed tosea spray and includered fescue,sea plantain andsea pink.^{[16][pages needed]} The machair landscapes includerare species such asIrish lady's tresses,yellow rattle and numerousorchids^[12] along with more common species such asmarram grass andmeadow buttercup,ragwort,bird's-foot trefoil andribwort plantain.^[17] Scots lovage (Ligusticum scoticum) first recorded in 1684 byRobert Sibbald, and theoyster plant are uncommon plants of the coasts.^[18]

Bogbean andwater lobelia are common plants of moorland pools and lochans.^[19] Theleast (Nuphar pumila),yellow andwhitewater-lilies are also widespread.^[20]Pipewort has generated some botanical controversy regarding its discovery, classification and distribution. It was found growing onSkye in the 18th century, although there was subsequent confusion as to both the discoverer and the correct scientific name – now agreed to beEriocaulon aquaticum. The European range of this plant is confined to Scotland and western Ireland and it is one of only a small number of species which is common in North America, but very restricted in Europe.^[21] There are a few localised examples of therigid hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum).^[22]

Grasses and sedges are common everywhere exceptdune systems (where marram grass may be locally abundant) and stony mountain tops and plateaux. The total number of species is large; 84 have been recorded on the verges of a single road inWest Lothian.^[23]Smooth meadow-grass andrough meadow-grass are widespread in damp lowland conditions,wood sedge (Carex sylvatica) in woodlands, andoval sedge andearly hair-grass on upland moors.^[24] In damp conditionsPhragmites reeds^[25] and several species ofJuncus are found abundantly includingjointed rush,soft rush andtoad rush, and less commonly the introduced speciesslender rush.^[26]Common cottongrass is a familiar site on marshy land,^[27] butsaltmarsh sedge (Carex salina) was only discovered for the first time in 2004 at the head ofLoch Duich.^[28]

Shetland mouse-ear (Cerastium nigrescens) is anendemic plant found inShetland. It was first recorded in 1837 by ShetlandbotanistThomas Edmondston. Although reported from two other sites in the 19th century, it currently^[when?] grows only on twoserpentine hills on the island ofUnst.^{[29][30][pages needed]} TheScottish primrose (Primula scotica), is endemic to the north coast includingCaithness andOrkney. It is closely related to theArctic speciesPrimula stricta andPrimula scandinavica.^{[31][failed verification][32]}

Endemic species of theHieracium,Rubus andTaraxacum apomictic complexes occur in Scotland, such as theSt Kilda dandelion (Taraxacum pankhurstianum), endemic to the island ofHirta, identified in 2012,^[33] the orange-flowered hawkweed (Hieracium fulvocaesium), endemic to Strathnaver,^[34] the Shetland Hawkweed (Hieracium zetlandicum), endemic to the Shetland Islands,^[35] andRubus longiflorus, endemic to coastal Angus and Kincardine.^[36]

Some of Scotland's flowering plants have extremely restricted ranges in the country. These includeDiapensia lapponica, found only on the slopes ofSgurr an Utha,Argyll^[37] andMountain bearberry, recorded at only a few mainland locations, and onSkye andOrkney.^[38] The pinewoods ofStrathspey contain rare species such ascreeping lady's tresses,twinflower and theone-flowered wintergreen. Plans to protect theIntermediate wintergreen, also found here, were introduced in 2008.^[39][40] Other nationally rare species includetufted saxifrage,alpine catchfly,sword-leaved helleborine,norwegian sandwort,dark-red helleborine,Iceland purslane,small cow-wheat andyellow oxytropis.^{[41][42][43][44]} Young's helleborine (Epipactis helleborine var.youngiana) is a rare endemicorchid principally found onbings created by thecoal-mining industry in theCentral Lowlands and classified as endangered.^[45][46]

Some non-native, invasive species have been identified as a threat to native biodiversity;Giant hogweed,Japanese knotweed,Himalayan balsam andRhododendron ponticum are generally regarded as the 'big 4'. In May 2008 it was announced thatpsyllid lice from Japan, which feed on the knotweed, may be introduced to the UK to bring the plant under control. This would be the first time that an alien species has been used in Britain in this way. Scientists at the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux International did not believe the lice would cause any environmental damage.^[47] Over-grazing caused by the large numbers ofred deer and sheep has also resulted in the impoverishment of moorland and upland habitats and a loss of native woodland.^[48] In 2012, the Scottish Government published a "Code of Practice on Non-Native Species" to help people understand their responsibilities and provide guidance as to which public body has responsibility for the various habitats involved.^[49]

Among naturalised plants within the British Isles, some, such asMagellan ragwort^{[50][date missing]} andpig fern^[51] are restricted to Scotland.

Only 31 species of deciduous tree and shrub are native to Scotland, including 10 willows, four whitebeams and three birch and cherry species.^[52]

TheMeikleour beech hedges located inPerth and Kinross were planted in the autumn of 1745 by Jean Mercer and her husband, Robert Murray Nairne. ThisEuropean beech hedge, which is 530 metres (0.33 mi) in length, reaches 30 metres (98 ft) in height and is noted in theGuinness World Records as the tallest and longest hedge on Earth.^[53][54]

TheArran whitebeams arespecies unique to theIsle of Arran. TheArran whitebeam (Sorbus arranensis) and thecut-leaved whitebeam (S. pseudofennica) are amongst the most endangered tree species in the world if rarity is measured by numbers alone. Only 236S. pseudofennica and 283S. arranensis were recorded as mature trees in 1980.^[55][56] The trees developed in a highly complex fashion involving the rockwhitebeam (S. rupicola), which is found on nearbyHoly Isle but not Arran, interbreeding with therowan (S. aucuparia) to produce the new species. In 2007 it was announced that two specimens of a third new hybrid, theCatacol whitebeam (S. pseudomeinichii) had been discovered by researchers on Arran. This tree is a cross between the native rowan andS. pseudofennica.^[57]

Shakespeare makes reference to Birnam Wood being used as camouflage forMalcolm Canmore's army before the battle at Dunsinane withMacBeth. There is an ancient tree, theBirnam Oak, standing a few hundred metres from the centre of Birnam. It may well have been part of Birnam Wood at the time of the battle 900 years ago, and remains part of the legend.^[58][59]

Research into the possible commercial use ofsea buckthorn was undertaken by Moray College commencing in 2006. The orange berries can be processed into jams, liquors and ointments and the hardy species grows well even on exposed west coasts.^[60]

The Scots pine andCommon Juniper are the only coniferous trees definitely native to Scotland, thoughYew is also likely native.^[52]

TheFortingall Yew is an ancient tree in the churchyard of the village ofFortingall inPerthshire. Various estimates have put its age at between 2,000 and 5,000 years;^[61] research into yew tree ages suggests that it is likely to be nearer the lower limit of 2,000 years.^[62][63] This still makes it the oldest tree in Europe, although there is aclonal colony ofNorway spruce inSweden that may be older.^[64][65]

Bracken is very common in upland areas,beech fern in woods and other shaded locations andscaly male fern in wooded or open areas.^[66]Wilsons filmy-fern is an uncommon upland variety in the Highlands, along with theTunbridge filmy-fern,Alpine lady-fern and the rarer stunted formNewman's lady-fern (Athyrium distentifolium var. flexile) which is endemic to Scotland.^[42][67][68] TheKillarney fern, once found onArran was thought to be extinct in Scotland,^[69] but has been discovered onSkye in itsgametophyte form.^[70]

Scotland's populations ofalpine woodsia andoblong woodsia are on the edge of their natural ranges. The UK distribution of the former is confined toAngus,Perthshire,Argyll and northWales, and of the latter to Angus, theMoffat Hills, north Wales and two locations in England. The plants were first identified as separate species by John Bolton in 1785 and came under severe threat fromVictorian fern collectors in the mid 19th century.^[71]Cystopteris dickieana, first discovered in a sea cave inKincardineshire, is a rare fern in a UK context whose distribution is confined to Scotland, although recent research suggests that it may be a variant ofC. fragilis rather than a species in its own right.^[72][73]

Scotland provides ideal growing conditions for manybryophyte species, due to the damp climate, absence of lengthy droughts and winters without protracted hard frosts. In addition, the country's diverse geology, numerous exposed rocky crags and screes and deep, damp ravines coupled with a relatively pollution-free atmosphere enables a diversity of species to exist. This unique assemblage is in marked contrast to the relative impoverishment of the native vascular plants.^[74] There are about 920 species of moss and liverwort in Scotland, with 87% of UK and 60% of European bryophytes represented. Scotland's bryophyte flora is globally important and this small country may host as many as 5% of the world's species (in 0.05% of theEarth's land area, similar in size toSouth Carolina orAssam). The mountains of the North-westHighlands host a unique bryophyte community called the "Northern Hepatic Mat", which is dominated by a variety of rare liverworts, such asPleurozia purpurea andAnastrophyllum alpinum.^[75][76]

Scotland has played an important part in the development of the understanding ofbryology, with pioneers such asArchibald Menzies andSir William Hooker commencing explorations at the end of the eighteenth century.Tetrodontium brownianum is named afterRobert Brown who first discovered the plant growing atRoslin nearEdinburgh and several other species such asPlagiochila atlantica andAnastrepta orcadensis were also first discovered in the country.^[76]

Sphagnum is common and harvested commercially for use in hanging baskets and wreaths and for medical purposes.^[77]glittering wood-moss,woolly hair-moss (Racomitrium lanuginosum) andbristly haircap (Polytrichum piliferum) are amongst many other abundant natives.^[78][79][80] Endemic species include theScottish thread-moss,Dixon's thread moss andScottish beard-moss.^[75][81] In the Cairngorms there are small stands ofsnow brook-moss andalpine thyme-moss, and an abundance oficy rock-moss, the latter's UK population being found only here and at one site in England.^[82][83] The west coast is rich in oceanic mosses such asCyclodictyon laetevirens and the Ben Lawers range also provides habitats for various rare species such astongue-leaved gland moss.Perthshire beard-moss is a European endemic, occurring at only four European sites outside Scotland and it isclassified as "Critically Endangered".^[76][81]

There are numerous commonliverworts such asConocephalum conicum andMarchantia polymorpha.^[76][84]Autumn flapwort (Jamesoniella autumnali), a nationally scarce species most commonly found in the sessile oak woods of western Scotland, was discovered at a site onBen Lomond in 2008. The species is named after the Scottish botanist,William Jameson.^[85]Northern prongwort is an endemic liverwort found only in theBeinn Eighe nature reserve.^[86] The high Cairngorms provide sites for a variety of other unusual liverworts includingMarsupella arctica, the European distribution of which is confined to two sites here andSvalbard.^[82]

Hornworts are scarce in Scotland,Carolina hornwort(Phaeoceros carolinianus) for example, having been found only inLauderdale.^[87]

Conservation of the natural environment is well-developed in the United Kingdom. There are various public sector organisations with an important role in the stewardship of the country's flora.^[88]NatureScot is the statutory body responsible for natural heritage management in Scotland. One of their duties is to establishNational Nature Reserves. Until 2004 there were 73, but a review carried out in that year resulted in a significant number of sites losing their NNR status, and as of 2022^[update] there are 43.^[89]Forestry and Land Scotland serves as the forestry department of theScottish Government and is one of the country's largest landowners.^[90] TheJoint Nature Conservation Committee is the statutory adviser on conservation to Government on all four nations of the UK including Scotland.^[91]

The country has twonational parks.Cairngorms National Park includes the largest area of arctic mountain landscape in the UK. Sites designated as of importance to natural heritage take up 39% of the land area, two-thirds of which are of Europe-wide importance.^[92]Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park includes Britain's largest body of freshwater, the mountains ofBreadalbane and the sea lochs ofArgyll.^[93]

Numerous charitable and voluntary organisations play important roles. TheBSBI andPlantlife are examples of plant-specific bodies which operate in Scotland. TheNational Trust for Scotland is the conservation charity that protects and promotes Scotland's natural and cultural heritage.^[94] TheRoyal Society for the Protection of Birds promotes conservation of birds and other wildlife through the protection and re-creation of habitats.^[95] TheJohn Muir Trust is a charity whose main role is as a guardian of wild land and wildlife, through the ownership of land and the promotion of education andconservation. The trust owns and manages estates in various locations, includingKnoydart,Assynt, and on the isle ofSkye.^[96]Trees for Life is a charity that aims to restore a "wild forest" in theNorthwest Highlands andGrampian Mountains.^[97]

TheWildlife and Countryside Act 1981 prohibits the uprooting of plants without a landowner's permission and the collection of any part of the most threatened species, which are listed in Schedule 8.^[98]

In 2024, the traditional practice ofmuirburn, the intentional burning of moorland, was banned, if carried out without a licence, by the Scottish parliament.^[99]

Plants feature heavily inGaelic andScottish folklore, song and poetry.

Thethistle has been one of the national emblems of the Scots nation since the reign ofAlexander III (1249–1286) and was used onsilver coins issued byJames III in 1470.^[100] Today, it forms part of the emblem of theScottish Rugby Union. Aslegend has it, an invading army had attempted to sneak up at night on the Scots. One, perhapsbarefooted, unwelcome foreign soldier stumbled upon a Scots Thistle, and cried out inpain, thus alerting Scots to their presence. Some sources suggest the specific occasion was theBattle of Largs, which marked the beginning of the departure of theViking monarchHaakon IV of Norway, who had harried the coast for some years.^[101]

Numerous plants are referred to in Scottish song and verse. These includeRobert Burns'A Red, Red Rose,Hugh MacDiarmid'sA Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle,Sorley MacLean'sHallaig,^[102]Harry Lauder'sI Love A Lassie and in the 21st century,Runrig'sAnd The Accordions Played.^[103] The last two lyrics include a reference to thebluebell. TheScottish bluebell isCampanula rotundifolia, (known elsewhere as theharebell) rather thanHyacinthoides non-scripta, thecommon bluebell.^[104]

Trees held an important place in Gaelic culture from the earliest times. Particularly large trees were venerated, and the most valuable such as oak,hazel andapple were classed as "nobles".^[105] The less importantalder,hawthorn andgean were classed as "commoners", and there were "lower orders" and "slaves" such asaspen and juniper. The alphabet was learned as amnemonic using tree names.Rowan was regularly planted close to Highland houses as a protection fromwitchcraft.^[106]

Various plants are said to haveapotropaic qualities, notably rowan.Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) may have been used as ahallucinogen as long ago as theNeolithic period.^[107][108]

• Botanical Society of Scotland
• Gardens in Scotland
• Category:Scottish botanists
• List of Scottish plants
• Category:Lists of vascular plants of the British Isles
• List of the mosses of Britain and Ireland
• Fauna of Scotland
• Traditional dyes of the Scottish Highlands, many of which use plants
• Forestry in Scotland

• Lusby, Phillip; Wright, Jenny (2001).Scottish Wild Plants: Their History, Ecology and Conservation (2nd ed.). Edinburgh: Mercat.ISBN 1-84183-011-9.OCLC 48753341.
• Ratcliffe, Derek (1977).Highland Flora. Inverness: HIDB.ISBN 0-902347-56-X.
• Shaw, Philip; Thompson, Des, eds. (2006).The Nature of the Cairngorms: Diversity in a changing environment. Edinburgh: The Stationery Office.ISBN 0-11-497326-1.
• Smout, T.C.; MacDonald, R.; Watson, Fiona (2007).A History of the Native Woodlands of Scotland 1500–1920. Edinburgh University Press.ISBN 978-0-7486-3294-7.
• Webster, Mary McCallum (1978).Flora of Moray, Nairn & East Inverness. Aberdeen University Press.ISBN 0-900015-42-X.

• Trees for Life species profiles

• Flora of Scotland
• Flora of Great Britain
• Biota of Scotland

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