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Aflap is ahigh-lift device used to reduce thestalling speed of anaircraftwing at a given weight. Flaps are usually mounted on the wingtrailing edges of afixed-wing aircraft. Flaps are used to reduce the take-off distance and the landing distance. Flaps also cause an increase indrag so they are retracted when not needed.
The flaps installed on most aircraft are partial-span flaps; spanwise from near the wing root to the inboard end of theailerons. When partial-span flaps are extended they alter the spanwiselift distribution on the wing by causing the inboard half of the wing to supply an increased proportion of the lift, and the outboard half to supply a reduced proportion of the lift. Reducing the proportion of the lift supplied by the outboard half of the wing is accompanied by a reduction in theangle of attack on the outboard half. This is beneficial because it increases the margin above thestall of the outboard half, maintaining aileron effectiveness and reducing the likelihood of asymmetric stall, andspinning. The ideal lift distribution across a wing is elliptical, and extending partial-span flaps causes a significant departure from the elliptical. This increaseslift-induced drag which can be beneficial during approach and landing because it allows the aircraft to descend at a steeper angle.
Extending the wing flaps increases thecamber or curvature of the wing, raising the maximumlift coefficient or the upper limit to the lift a wing can generate. This allows the aircraft to generate the required lift at a lower speed, reducing the minimum speed (known as stall speed) at which the aircraft will safely maintain flight. For most aircraft configurations, a useful side effect of flap deployment is a decrease in aircraft pitch angle which lowers the nose thereby improving the pilot's view of the runway over the nose of the aircraft during landing.
There are many different designs of flaps, with the specific choice depending on the size, speed and complexity of the aircraft on which they are to be used, as well as the era in which the aircraft was designed. Plain flaps,slotted flaps, andFowler flaps are the most common.Krueger flaps are positioned on the leading edge of the wings and are used on many jet airliners. The Fowler, Fairey-Youngman and Gouge types of flap increase the wing area in addition to changing the camber. The larger lifting surface reduceswing loading, hence further reducing the stalling speed.
Some flaps are fitted elsewhere. Leading-edge flaps form the wing leading edge and when deployed they rotate down to increase the wing camber. Thede Havilland DH.88 Comet racer had flaps running beneath the fuselage and forward of the wing trailing edge. Many of theWaco Custom Cabin series biplanes have the flaps at mid-chord on the underside of the top wing.
The general airplane lift equation demonstrates these relationships:[1]
where:
Here, it can be seen that increasing the area (S) and lift coefficient () allow a similar amount of lift to be generated at a lower airspeed (V). Thus, flaps are extensively in use for short takeoffs and landings (STOL).
Extending the flaps also increases thedrag coefficient of the aircraft. Therefore, for any given weight and airspeed, flaps increase thedrag force. Flaps increase thedrag coefficient of an aircraft due to higherinduced drag caused by the distorted spanwise lift distribution on the wing with flaps extended. Some flaps increase the wing area and, for any given speed, this also increases theparasitic drag component of total drag.[1]
Depending on the aircraft type, flaps may be partially extended fortakeoff.[1] When used during takeoff, flaps trade runway distance for climb rate: using flaps reduces ground roll but also reduces the climb rate. The amount of flap used on takeoff is specific to each type of aircraft, and the manufacturer will suggest limits and may indicate the reduction in climb rate to be expected. TheCessna 172S Pilot Operating Handbook recommends 10° of flaps on takeoff, when the ground is soft or it is a short runway, otherwise 0 degrees is used.[2]
Flaps may be fully extended forlanding to give the aircraft a lower stall speed so the approach to landing can be flown more slowly, which also allows the aircraft to land in a shorter distance. The higher drag and lower stalling speed associated with fully extended flaps allow a steeper and slower approach to the landing site, but imposes handling difficulties in aircraft with very lowwing loading (i.e. having little weight and a large wing area). Winds across the line of flight, known ascrosswinds, cause the windward side of the aircraft to generate more lift and drag, causing the aircraft toroll, yaw and pitch off its intended flight path, and as a result many light aircraft land with reduced flap settings in crosswinds. Furthermore, once the aircraft is on the ground, the flaps may decrease the effectiveness of the brakes since the wing is still generating lift and preventing the entire weight of the aircraft from resting on the tires, thus increasing stopping distance, particularly in wet or icy conditions. Usually, the pilot will raise the flaps as soon as possible to prevent this from occurring.[2]
Somegliders not only use flaps when landing, but also in flight to optimize the camber of the wing for the chosen speed. Whilethermalling, flaps may be partially extended to reduce the stall speed so that the glider can be flown more slowly and thereby reduce the rate of sink, which lets the glider use the rising air of the thermal more efficiently, and to turn in a smaller circle to make best use of the core of thethermal.[citation needed] At higher speeds a negative flap setting is used to reduce the nose-downpitching moment. This reduces the balancing load required on thehorizontal stabilizer, which in turn reduces the trim drag associated with keeping the glider in longitudinal trim.[citation needed] Negative flap may also be used during the initial stage of an aerotow launch and at the end of the landing run in order to maintain better control by theailerons.[citation needed]
Like gliders, somefighters such as theNakajima Ki-43 also use special flaps to improve maneuverability during air combat (manually operated, just a fowler flap), reducing the stalling speed and allowing for much tighter turns.[3] The flaps used for this must be designed specifically to handle the greater stresses and most flaps have amaximum speed at which they can be deployed.Control line model aircraft built forprecision aerobatics competition usually have a type of maneuvering flap system that moves them in an opposing direction to the elevators, to assist in tightening the radius of a maneuver.
"Goerge 21" and others had analog computing automatic dog-fighting flap system.(ja: 自動空戦フラップ )
Manufactured most often fromPH steels and titanium, flap tracks control the flaps located on the trailing edge of an aircraft's wings. Extending flaps often run on guide tracks. Where these run outside the wing structure they may be faired in to streamline them and protect them from damage.[4] Someflap track fairings are designed to act asanti-shock bodies, which reduce drag caused by local sonic shock waves where the airflow becomestransonic at high speeds.
Thrust gates, or gaps, in the trailing edge flaps may be required to minimise interference between the engine flow and deployed flaps. In the absence of an inboard aileron, which provides a gap in many flap installations, a modified flap section may be needed. The thrust gate on theBoeing 757 was provided by a single-slotted flap in between the inboard and outboard double-slotted flaps.[5] TheA320,A330,A340 andA380 have no inboard aileron. No thrust gate is required in the continuous, single-slotted flap. Interference in the go-around case while the flaps are still fully deployed can cause increased drag which must not compromise the climb gradient.[6]
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The rear portion of airfoil rotates downwards on a simple hinge mounted at the front of the flap.[7] TheRoyal Aircraft Factory andNational Physical Laboratory in theUnited Kingdom tested flaps in 1913 and 1914, but these were never installed in an actual aircraft.[8] In 1916, theFairey Aviation Company made a number of improvements to aSopwith Baby they were rebuilding, including their Patent Camber Changing Gear, making theFairey Hamble Baby as they renamed it, the first aircraft to fly with flaps.[8] These were full-span plain flaps which incorporated ailerons, making it also the first instance of flaperons.[8] Fairey were not alone however, asBreguet soon incorporated automatic flaps into the lower wing of theirBreguet 14 reconnaissance/bomber in 1917.[9] Owing to the greater efficiency of other flap types, the plain flap is normally only used where simplicity is required.
The rear portion of the lower surface of the airfoil hinges downwards from the leading edge of the flap, while the upper surface stays immobile.[10] This can cause large changes in longitudinal trim, pitching the nose either down or up. At full deflection, a split flaps acts much like a spoiler, adding significantly to drag coefficient.[citation needed] It also adds a little to lift coefficient. It was invented byOrville Wright and James M. H. Jacobs in 1920, but only became common in the 1930s and was then quickly superseded.[11][failed verification] TheSupermarine Spitfire andDouglas DC-1 (progenitor to the DC-3 and C-47) are two of the many 1930s aircraft types to use split flaps.
A gap between the flap and the wing forces high pressure air from below the wing over the flap helping the airflow remain attached to the flap, increasing the maximum lift coefficient compared to a split flap.[12] Additionally, pressure across the entire chord of the primary airfoil is greatly reduced as the velocity of air leaving its trailing edge is raised, from the typical non-flap 80% of freestream, to that of the higher-speed, lower-pressure air flowing around the leading edge of the slotted flap.[13] Any flap that allows air to pass between the wing and the flap is considered a slotted flap. The slotted flap was a result of research atHandley-Page, a variant of the slot that dates from the 1920s, but was not widely used until much later. Some flaps use multiple slots to further boost the effect.
A split flap that slides backwards, before hinging downward, thereby increasing first chord, then camber.[14] The flap may form part of the upper surface of the wing, like a plain flap, or it may not, like a split flap, but it must slide rearward before lowering. As a defining feature – distinguishing it from the Gouge Flap – it always provides a slot effect.
The flap was invented byHarlan D. Fowler in 1924, and tested byFred Weick atNACA in 1932. First used on theMartin 146 prototype in 1935, it entered production on the 1937Lockheed Super Electra,[15] and remains in widespread use on modern aircraft, often with multiple slots.[16]
A slotted plain flap fixed below the trailing edge of the wing, and rotating about its forward edge.[17] When not in use, it has more drag than other types, but is more effective at reducing stalling speed than a plain or split flap, while retaining their mechanical simplicity. Invented by Otto Mader at Junkers in the late 1920s, they were most often seen on theJunkers Ju 52 and theJunkers Ju 87Stuka, though the same basic design can also be found on many modern ultralights, like theDenney Kitfox. This type of flap is sometimes referred to as an external-airfoil flap.[18]
A type of split flap that slides backward along curved tracks that force the trailing edge downward, increasing chord and camber without affecting trim or requiring any additional mechanisms.[19] It was invented byArthur Gouge forShort Brothers in 1936 and used on theShort Empire andSunderland flying boats, which used the very thick Shorts A.D.5 airfoil. Short Brothers may have been the only company to use this type.
Drops down (becoming a Junkers Flap) before sliding aft and then rotating up or down.Fairey was one of the few exponents of this design, which was used on theFairey Firefly andFairey Barracuda. When in the extended position, it could be angled up (to a negative angle of incidence) so that the aircraft could be dived vertically without needing excessive trim changes.[citation needed]
The Zap flap was invented by Edward F. Zaparka while he was with Berliner/Joyce and tested on aGeneral Airplanes Corporation Aristocrat in 1932 and on other types periodically thereafter, but it saw little use on production aircraft other than on theNorthrop P-61 Black Widow. The leading edge of the flap is mounted on a track, while a point at mid chord on the flap is connected via an arm to a pivot just above the track. When the flap's leading edge moves aft along the track, the triangle formed by the track, the shaft and the surface of the flap (fixed at the pivot) gets narrower and deeper, forcing the flap down.[20]
A hinged flap which folds out from under the wing's leading edge while not forming a part of the leading edge of the wing when retracted. This increases the camber and thickness of the wing, which in turn reduces stalling speed and increases drag.[21][22] This is not the same as a leading edge droop flap, as that is formed from the entire leading edge.[23] Invented by Werner Krüger in 1943 and evaluated in Goettingen, Krueger flaps are found on many modern swept wing airliners.
A small fixed perpendicular tab of between 1 and 2% of the wing chord, mounted on the high pressure side of the trailing edge of an airfoil. It was named for racing car driverDan Gurney who rediscovered it in 1971, and has since been used on some helicopters such as theSikorsky S-76B to correct control problems without having to resort to a major redesign. It boosts the efficiency of even basic theoretical airfoils (made up of a triangle and a circle overlapped) to the equivalent of a conventional airfoil. The principle was discovered in the 1930s, but was rarely used and was then forgotten. Late marks of theSupermarine Spitfire used a bead on the trailing edge of the elevators, which functioned in a similar manner.
The entire leading edge of the wing rotates downward, effectively increasing camber and also slightly reducing chord.[24][25] Most commonly found on fighters with very thin wings unsuited to other leading edge high lift devices. Slats are one of such devices, Slats are extendable high lift devices on the leading edge of the wings of some fixed wing aircraft. Their purpose is to increase lift during low speed operations such as take-off, initial climb, approach and landing.
A type of Boundary Layer Control System, blown flaps pass engine-generated air or exhaust over the flaps to reduce stalling speed below that attainable with mechanical flaps. Types include the original (internally blown flap) which blows compressed air from the engine over the top of the flap, the externally blown flap, which blows engine exhaust over the upper and lower surfaces of the flap, and upper surface blowing which blows engine exhaust over the top of the wing and flap. While testing was done in Britain and Germany before theSecond World War,[26] and flight trials started, the first production aircraft with blown flaps was not until the 1957Lockheed T2V SeaStar.[27] Upper Surface Blowing was used on theBoeing YC-14 in 1976.
Also known as the FlexFoil, a modern interpretation of wing warping, internal mechanical actuators bend a lattice that changes the airfoil shape. It may have a flexible gap seal at the transition between fixed and flexible airfoils.[28]
A type of aircraftcontrol surface that combines the functions of bothflaps andailerons.
As of 2014,U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) researchers at NASA's Langley Research Center developed an active-flap design for helicopter rotor blades. The Continuous Trailing-Edge Flap (CTEF) uses components to change blade camber during flight, eliminating mechanical hinges in order to improve system reliability. Prototypes were constructed for wind-tunnel testing.[29]
A team from ARL completed a live-fire test of a rotor blade with individual blade control technology in January 2016. The live fire experiments explored the ballistic vulnerability of blade control technologies. Researchers fired three shots representative of typical ground fire on a 7-foot-span, 10-inch-chord rotor blade section with a 4-foot-long CTEF at ARL's Airbase Experimental Facility.[30]
Vehicle is designed to be able to land at the Earth, Moon or Mars. Depending on which ... the ratio of the energy dissipated aerodynamically vs. propulsively is quite different. In the case of the Moon, it's entirely propulsive. ... Earth: over 99.9% of the energy is removed aerodynamically ... Mars: over 99% of the energy is being removed aerodynamically at Mars.
