Flamenco (Spanish pronunciation:[flaˈmeŋko]) is an art form based on the various folkloric music traditions of southernSpain, developed within thegitano subculture of the region ofAndalusia, and also having historical presence inExtremadura andMurcia.[1][2][3] In a wider sense, the term is used to refer to a variety of both contemporary and traditional musical styles typical of southern Spain. Flamenco is closely associated to the gitanos of theRomani ethnicity who have contributed significantly to its origination andprofessionalization. However, its style is uniquely Andalusian and flamenco artists have historically included Spaniards of both gitano and non-gitano heritage.[4]
The oldest record of flamenco music dates to 1774 in the bookLas Cartas Marruecas (The Moroccan Letters) byJosé Cadalso.[5] The development of flamenco over the past two centuries is well documented: "the theatre movement ofsainetes (one-act plays) andtonadillas, popular song books and song sheets, customs, studies of dances, andtoques, perfection, newspapers, graphic documents in paintings and engravings. ... in continuous evolution together with rhythm, the poetic stanzas, and the ambiance."[6]
Historically, the termflamenco was used to identify theRomani people (gitanos) of Spain.[8] The English travellerGeorge Borrow who travelled through Spain during the 1830s stated that the gitanos were also calledFlemish (in Spanish, 'flamenco') due to German and Flemish being erroneously considered synonymous.[9] According toflamencologist Cristina Cruces-Roldán, a year prior to Borrow's account, there already existed a gitano party in Madrid that was clearly identified as flamenco. This equivalency between gitano and flamenco is also noted byManuel Fernández y González,Demófilo, and the scholar Irving Brown who stated in 1938 that "flamenco is simply another term for gitano, with special connotations."[9]
The origins of the term lie in thesociological prejudice towards the Roma who were seen as ruffians and cocky troublemakers by the Spaniards and were thus associated with the 18th centuryGerman colonists of theSierra Morena who formed groups of urban Bohemians that lived outside the law and were seen as idle and lazy.[10] Other less successful hypotheses include those ofFelipe Pedrell and Carlos Alemendros who state that while the termflamenco is Spanish for Flemish, it is actually synonymous withcantador (professional singer) in reference to the group of Flemish singers brought by Spanish King Carlos I in 1516. Another hypothesis that is not widely accepted is theArabist theory ofBlas Infante, which in his bookOrígenes de lo flamenco (Origins of flamenco)[11] presentsflamenco as a phonetic deformation of Arabicfellah-mengu (runaway laborer)[12] or was derived from the Arabic termsFelah-Mengus, which together mean "wandering peasant".[11]
The first use of the term flamenco to refer to the music genre appears in a 1847 newspaper article ofEl Espectador where it was referred to as a "gitano genre". In the early years of flamenco, the term was versatile and was used to refer to a variety of concepts in the gitano-Andalusian world.[13] For example, in the 1860s-70s this versatility was exemplified through its use to refer to a musical style and a certain aesthetic, manners, and way of life that were perceived to be gitano. At that time, flamenco was not a strict genre but a way of performing music in a gitano-Andalusian style.[14]
There are hypotheses that point to the influence on flamenco of types of dance from the Indian subcontinent; the place of origin of theRomani people.[1] The North Indian scales of flamenco were introduced to Andalusia by the Romani migrations fromNorthern India.[15] These Roma migrants also brought bells, and an extensive repertoire of songs and dances.[16] Upon arrival to Andalusia in the 15th century, they were exposed to the rich Arab-Andalusian music culture, itself a hybrid of Spanish music tradition going back to the 8th century with the establishment ofAl-Andalus, which brought in traditions and music from theArabian Peninsula,Northern Africa andSephardic features. Some of the instruments associated with flamenco and Spanish folklore in different regions today, are the woodencastanets andtambourines, both believed to originate during the Al Andalus period.[17][18] This centuries-long period of cultural intermingling, formed the roots of flamenco song and dance genres.[19][20]
It is believed that the flamenco genre emerged at the end of the 18th century in cities and agrarian towns of Baja Andalusia, highlightingJerez de la Frontera as the first written vestige of this art, although there is practically no data related to those dates and the manifestations of this time are more typical of thebolero school than of flamenco. It appeared as a modern art form from the convergence of the urbansubaltern groups, gitano communities, andjourneyman of Andalusia that formed the marginalized flamenco artistic working class who established flamenco as a singular art form, marked from the beginning by the gitano brand.[13] Andalusia was the origin and cradle of the early flamenco cantaores and of the three or four dozen gitano families who created and cultivated flamenco.[21]
During the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, a number of factors led to rise in Spain of a phenomenon known as "Costumbrismo Andaluz" or "Andalusian Mannerism".
In 1783Carlos III promulgated a pragmatics that regulated the social situation of thegitanos.[22] This was a momentous event in the history of Spanish gitanos who, after centuries of marginalization and persecution, saw their legal situation improve substantially.
After theSpanish War of Independence (1808–1812), a feeling of racial pride developed in the Spanish conscience, in opposition to the "gallified"afrancesados - Spaniards who were influenced by French culture and the idea of the enlightenment. In this context, gitanos were seen as an ideal embodiment ofSpanish culture and the emergence of thebullfighting schools ofRonda andSeville, the rise of the Bandidos and Vaqueros led to a taste for Andalusian romantic culture which triumphed in the Madrid court.
At this time there is evidence of disagreements due to the introduction of innovations in art.[23]
"Café cantante" in Seville, Spain, c.1888. Photograph by Emilio Beauchy aka "E. Beauchy"
In 1881Silverio Franconetti opened the first flamenco singer café in Seville. In Silverio's café the cantaores were in a very competitive environment, which allowed the emergence of the professional cantaor and served as a crucible where flamenco art was configured. Locals learned the cantes, while reinterpreting the Andalusian folk songs in their own style, expanding the repertoire. Likewise, the taste of the public contributed to configure the flamenco genre, unifying its technique and its theme.[24]
Flamenquismo, defined by the Royal Spanish Academy as a "fondness for flamenco art and customs", is a conceptual catch-all where flamenco singing and a fondness for bullfighting, among other traditional Spanish elements, fit. These customs were strongly attacked by thegeneration of 98, all of its members being "anti-flamenco", with the exception of the Machado brothers, Manuel and Antonio. Being Sevillians and sons of the folklorist Demófilo Machado, the brothers had a more complex view of the matter. The greatest standard bearer of anti-flamenquism was theMadrid writer Eugenio Noel, who, in his youth, had been a militantcasticista. Noel attributed to flamenco and bullfighting the origin of the ills of Spain which he saw as manifestations of the country'sOriental character which hindered economic and social development. These considerations caused an insurmountable rift to be established for decades between flamenco and most "intellectuals" of the time.[25]
Between 1920 and 1955, flamenco shows began to be held in bullrings and theaters, under the name "flamenco opera". This denomination was an economic strategy of the promoters, since opera only paid 3% while variety shows paid 10%. At this time, flamenco shows spread throughout Spain and the main cities of the world. The great social and commercial success achieved by flamenco at this time eliminated some of the oldest and most sober styles from the stage, in favor of lighter airs, such ascantiñas, loscantes de ida y vuelta andfandangos, of which many personal versions were created. The purist critics attacked this lightness of the cantes, as well as the use of falsete and thegaitero style.[26]
In the line of purism, the poetFederico García Lorca and the composerManuel de Falla had the idea of concurso de cante jondo inGranada in 1922.[27] Both artists conceived of flamenco as folklore, not as a scenic artistic genre; for this reason, they were concerned, since they believed that the massive triumph of flamenco would end its purest and deepest roots. To remedy this, they organized a cante jondo contest in which only amateurs could participate and in which festive cantes (such as cantiñas) were excluded, which Falla and Lorca did not consider jondos, but flamencos. The jury was chaired by Antonio Chacón, who at that time was the leading figure in cante. The winners were "El Tenazas", a retired professional cantaor from Morón de la Frontera, and Manuel Ortega, an eight-year-old boy from Seville who would go down in flamenco history as Manolo Caracol. The contest turned out to be a failure due to the scant echo it had and because Lorca and Falla did not know how to understand the professional character that flamenco already had at that time, striving in vain to seek a purity that never existed in an art that was characterized by mixture and the personal innovation of its creators. Apart from this failure, with theGeneration of '27, whose most eminent members were Andalusians and therefore knew the genre first-hand, the recognition of flamenco by intellectuals began.
At that time, there were already flamenco recordings related to Christmas, which can be divided into two groups: the traditional flamenco carol and flamenco songs that adapt their lyrics to the Christmas theme. These cantes have been maintained to this day, the Zambomba Jerezana being spatially representative, declared an Asset of Intangible Cultural Interest by the Junta de Andalucía in December 2015.
During theSpanish Civil War, a large number of singers were exiled or died defending theRepublic and the humiliations to which they were being subjected by the National Party:Bando Nacional:Corruco de Algeciras,Chaconcito,El Carbonerillo,El Chato De Las Ventas,Vallejito,Rita la Cantaora,Angelillo,Guerrita are some of them. In the postwar period and the first years of theFranco regime, the world of flamenco was viewed with suspicion, as the authorities were not clear that this genre contributed to the national conscience. However, the regime soon ended up adopting flamenco as one of the quintessential Spanish cultural manifestations. The singers who have survived the war go from stars to almost outcasts, singing for the young men in the private rooms of the brothels in the center of Seville where they have to adapt to the whims of aristocrats, soldiers and businessmen who have become rich.
Starting in the 1950s, abundant anthropological and musicological studies on flamenco began to be published. In 1954 Hispavox published the firstAntología del Cante Flamenco, a sound recording that was a great shock to its time, dominated by orchestrated cante and, consequently, mystified. In 1955, the Argentine intellectual Anselmo González Climent published an essay calledFlamencología, whose title he baptized the "set of knowledge, techniques, etc., on flamenco singing and dancing." This book dignified the study of flamenco by applying the academic methodology of musicology to it and served as the basis for subsequent studies on this genre.[28]
As a result, in 1956 the National Contest of Cante Jondo de Córdoba was organized and in 1958 the first flamencology chair was founded in Jerez de la Frontera, the oldest academic institution dedicated to the study, research, conservation, promotion and defense of the flamenco art. Likewise, in 1963 the Cordovan poet Ricardo Molina and the Sevillian cantaorAntonio Mairena published Alalimón Mundo y Formas delCante flamenco, which has become a must-have reference work.[29]
For a long time the Mairenistas postulates were considered practically unquestionable, until they found an answer in other authors who elaborated the "Andalusian thesis", which defended that flamenco was a genuinely Andalusian product, since it had been developed entirely in this region and because its styles basic ones derived from the folklore of Andalusia. They also maintained that the Andalusian gitanos had contributed decisively to their formation, highlighting the exceptional nature of flamenco among gypsy music and dances from other parts of Spain and Europe. The unification of the gitanos and Andalusian thesis has ended up being the most accepted today. In short, between the 1950s and 1970s, flamenco went from being a mere show to also becoming an object of study.
Flamenco became one of the symbols of Spanish national identity during theFranco regime, since the regime knew how to appropriate a folklore traditionally associated with Andalusia to promote national unity and attract tourism, constituting what was called national-flamenquismo. Hence, flamenco had long been seen as a reactionary or retrograde element. In the mid-60s and until the transition, cantadores who opposed the regime began to appear with the use of protest lyrics. These include: José Menese and lyricist Francisco Moreno Galván,Enrique Morente, Manuel Gerena,El Lebrijano,El Cabrero,Lole y Manuel, el Piki or Luis Marín, among many others.[30]
In contrast to this conservatism with which it was associated during the Franco regime, flamenco suffered the influence of the wave of activism that also shook the university against the repression of the regime when university students came into contact with this art in the recitals that were held, for example, at the Colegio Mayor de San Juan Evangelista: "flamenco amateurs and professionals got involved with performances of a manifestly political nature. It was a kind of flamenco protest charged with protest, which meant censorship and repression for the flamenco activists ".
As the political transition progressed, the demands were deflated as flamenco inserted itself within the flows of globalized art. At the same time, this art was institutionalized until it reached the point that theJunta de Andalucía was attributed in 2007 "exclusive competence in matters of knowledge, conservation, research, training, promotion and dissemination".
Finnish flamenco dancer Reima Nikkinen with an unidentified woman dancer in December 1971
In the 1970s, there were airs of social and political change in Spain, and Spanish society was already quite influenced by various musical styles from the rest of Europe and the United States. There were also numerous singers who had grown up listening toAntonio Mairena,Pepe Marchena andManolo Caracol. The combination of both factors led to a revolutionary period called flamenco fusion.[31]
The singerRocío Jurado internationalized flamenco at the beginning of the 70s, replacing the bata de cola with evening dresses. Her facet in the "Fandangos de Huelva" and in the Alegrías was recognized internationally for her perfect voicetessitura in these genres. She used to be accompanied in her concerts by guitarists Enrique de Melchor andTomatito, not only at the national level but in countries like Colombia, Venezuela and Puerto Rico.
The musical representative José Antonio Pulpón was a decisive character in that fusion, as he urged the cantaor Agujetas to collaborate with the Sevillian Andalusian rock group "Pata Negra", the most revolutionary couple since Antonio Chacón andRamón Montoya, initiating a new path for flamenco. It also fostered the artistic union between the virtuoso guitarist from AlgecirasPaco de Lucía and the long-standing singer from the islandCamarón de la Isla, who gave a creative impulse to flamenco that would mean its definitive break with Mairena's conservatism. When both artists undertook their solo careers, Camarón became a mythical cantaor for his art and personality, with a legion of followers, while Paco de Lucía reconfigured the entire musical world of flamenco, opening up to new influences, such as Brazilian music, Arabic and jazz and introducing new musical instruments such as the Peruvian cajon, the transverse flute, etc.
Other leading performers in this process of formal flamenco renewal wereJuan Peña El Lebrijano, who married flamenco with Andalusian music, andEnrique Morente, who throughout his long artistic career has oscillated between the purism of his first recordings and the crossbreeding with rock, orRemedios Amaya fromTriana, cultivator of a unique style oftangos from Extremadura, and a wedge of purity in her cante make her part of this select group of established artists. Other singers with their own style includeCancanilla de Marbella. In 2011 this style became known in India thanks toMaría del Mar Fernández, who acts in the video clip of the film You Live Once, entitled Señorita. The film was seen by more than 73 million viewers.
In the 1980s a new generation of flamenco artists emerged who had been influenced by the mythical cantaor Camarón, Paco de Lucía, Morente, etc. These artists were interested in popular urban music, which in those years was renewing the Spanish music scene, it was the time of theMovida madrileña. Among them are "Pata Negra", who fused flamenco with blues and rock,Ketama, of pop and Cuban inspiration and Ray Heredia, creator of his own musical universe where flamenco occupies a central place.[32]
Also the recording company Nuevos Medios released many musicians under the label nuevo flamenco and this denomination has grouped musicians very different from each other likeRosario Flores, daughter ofLola Flores, or the renowned singerMalú, niece of Paco de Lucía and daughter of Pepe de Lucía, who despite sympathizing with flamenco and keeping it in her discography has continued with her personal style. However, the fact that many of the interpreters of this new music are also renowned cantaores, in the case ofJosé Mercé,El Cigala, and others, has led to labeling everything they perform as flamenco, although the genre of their songs differs quite a bit from the classic flamenco. This has generated very different feelings, both for and against.
But the discussion between the difference of flamenco andnew flamenco in Spain has just gained strength during since 2019 due to the success of new flamenco attracting the taste of the youngest Spanish fans but also in the international musical scene emphasizing the problem of how should we call this new musical genre mixed with flamenco.
One of the artists who has reinvented flamenco isRosalía, an indisputable name on the international music scene. "Pienso en tu mirá", "Di mi nombre" or the song that catapulted her to fame, "Malamente", are a combination of styles that includes a flamenco/south Spain traditional musical base. Rosalía has broken the limits of this musical genre by embracing other urban rhythms, but has also created a lot of controversy about which genre is she using. TheCatalan artist has been awarded severalLatin Grammy Awards andMTV Video Music Awards, which also, at just 30 years old, garners more than 40 million monthly listeners onSpotify.[33]
But it is not the only successful case, the Granada-bornDellafuente,C. Tangana,MAKA, RVFV, Demarco Flamenco,Maria Àrnal and Marcel Bagés, El Niño de Elche,Sílvia Pérez Cruz; Califato 3/4, Juanito Makandé, Soledad Morente,María José Llergo oFuel Fandango are only a few of the new spanish musical scene that includes flamenco in their music.
It seems that the Spanish music scene is experiencing a change in its music and new rhythms are re-emerging together with new artists who are experimenting to cover a wider audience that wants to maintain the closeness that flamenco has transmitted for decades.
The state of New Mexico, located in the southwest of the United States, maintains a strong identity with flamenco culture. TheUniversity of New Mexico located inAlbuquerque offers a graduate degree program in flamenco. Flamenco performances are widespread in the Albuquerque andSanta Fe communities, with the National institute of Flamenco sponsoring an annual festival, as well as a variety of professional flamenco performances offered at various locales. Emmy Grimm, known by her stage nameLa Emi is a professional flamenco dancer and native to New Mexico who performs as well as teaches flamenco in Santa Fe. She continues studying her art by traveling to Spain to work intensively with Carmela Greco and La Popi, as well as José Galván, Juana Amaya, Yolanda Heredia, Ivan Vargas Heredia, Torombo and Rocio Alcaide Ruiz.[34]
Palos (formerly known ascantes) are flamenco styles, classified by criteria such as rhythmic pattern,mode,chord progression,stanzaic form and geographic origin. There are over 50 differentpalos, some are sung unaccompanied while others have guitar or other accompaniment. Some forms are danced while others are not. Some are reserved for men and others for women while some may be performed by either, though these traditional distinctions are breaking down: theFarruca, for example, once a male dance, is now commonly performed by women too.[35][36]
There are many ways to categorizePalos but they traditionally fall into three classes: the most serious is known ascante jondo (orcante grande), while lighter, frivolous forms are calledCante Chico. Forms that do not fit either category are classed asCante Intermedio (Pohren 2005, 68). These are the best knownpalos (Anon. 2019;Anon. 2012):
The alegrías are thought to derive from the Aragonese jota, which took root in Cadiz during thePeninsular war and the establishment of the Cortes de Cadiz. That is why its classic lyrics contain so many references to the Virgen del Pilar, the Ebro River and Navarra.
Enrique Butrón is considered to have formalized the current flamenco style of alegrías and Ignacio Espeleta who introduced the characteristic "tiriti, tran, tran...". Some of the best known interpreters of alegrías are Enrique el Mellizo, Chato de la Isla, Pinini, Pericón de Cádiz, Aurelio Sellés, La Perla de Cádiz, Chano Lobato and El Folli.
One of the structurally strictest forms of flamenco, a traditional dance in alegrías must contain each of the following sections: a salida (entrance), paseo (walkaround), silencio (similar to an adagio in ballet), castellana (upbeat section)zapateado (Literally "a tap of the foot") andbulerías. This structure though, is not followed when alegrías are sung as a standalone song (with no dancing). In that case, the stanzas are combined freely, sometimes together with other types ofcantiñas.
Alegrías has a rhythm consisting of 12 beats. It is similar toSoleares. Its beat emphasis is as follows: 1 2[3] 4 5[6] 7[8] 9[10] 11[12]. Alegrías originated inCádiz. Alegrías belongs to the group ofpalos calledCantiñas and it is usually played in a lively rhythm (120–170 beats per minute). The livelier speeds are chosen for dancing, while quieter rhythms are preferred for the song alone.
Bulerías a fast flamenco rhythm made up of a 12 beat cycle with emphasis in two general forms as follows:[12] 1 2[3] 4 5[6] 7[8] 9[10] 11 or[12] 1 2[3] 4 5 6[7][8] 9[10] 11. It originated among theCalé Romani people ofJerez during the 19th century,[37] originally as a fast, upbeat ending tosoleares oralegrias. It is among the most popular and dramatic of the flamenco forms and often ends any flamenco gathering, often accompanied by vigorous dancing and tapping.
There are three fundamental elements which can help define whether or not something really is flamenco: A flamenco mode -or musical tonality-; thecompás -rhythm- and the performer. .. who should be a Flamenco! All three of these elements: tonality,compás, a flamenco performer and then something less easily identifiable-Flamencura- must be present together if we are to wend up with a piece of music which can be labelled 'flamenco'. By themselves, these elements won't turn a piece of music into flamenco.
Three fundamental elements that help define whether or not a dance belongs to the Flamenco genre are the presence of a Flamenco mode (musical tonality),compas, and a Flamenco performer (Martinez, 2003). These three elements contribute to the authenticity of a Flamenco performance also known asflamencura (Martinez, 2003). There is also no such thing as a passive audience during Flamenco performances [participatory music]. The audience joins in the performance by clapping their hands and even sometimes singing along (Totton, 2003).
A typical flamenco recital with voice and guitar accompaniment comprises a series of pieces (not exactly "songs") in different palos. Each song is a set of verses (calledcopla,tercio, orletras), punctuated by guitar interludes (falsetas). The guitarist also provides a short introduction setting the tonality,compás (see below) and tempo of the cante (Manuel 2006, 98). In some palos, these falsetas are played with a specific structure too; for example, the typicalsevillanas is played in an AAB pattern, where A and B are the same falseta with only a slight difference in the ending (Martin 2002, 48).
Guitarists tend to use only two basic inversions or "chord shapes" for the tonicchord (music), the open 1st inversionE and the open 3rd inversionA, though they oftentranspose these by using acapo. Modern guitarists such asRamón Montoya, have introduced other positions: Montoya himself started to use other chords for the tonic in themodern Dorian sections of severalpalos;F♯ fortarantas,B forgranaínas andA♭ for theminera. Montoya also created a newpalo as a solo for guitar, therondeña inC♯ withscordatura. Later guitarists have further extended the repertoire oftonalities, chord positions andscordatura.
There are alsopalos in major mode; mostcantiñas andalegrías,guajiras, somebulerías andtonás, and thecabales (a major type ofsiguiriyas). The minor mode is restricted to theFarruca, themilongas (amongcantes de ida y vuelta), and some styles oftangos, bulerías, etc. In general traditional palos in major and minor mode are limited harmonically to two-chord (tonic–dominant) or three-chord (tonic–subdominant–dominant) progressions (Rossy 1998, 92). However modern guitarists have introducedchord substitution, transition chords, and evenmodulation.
Fandangos and derivativepalos such asmalagueñas,tarantas andcartageneras are bimodal: guitar introductions are in Phrygian mode while the singing develops in major mode, modulating to Phrygian at the end of the stanza (Rossy 1998, 92).
Portamento: frequently, the change from one note to another is done in a smooth transition, rather than using discrete intervals.
Shorttessitura orrange: Most traditional flamenco songs are limited to a range of a sixth (four tones and a half). The impression of vocal effort is the result of using differenttimbres, and variety is accomplished by the use of microtones.
Use ofenharmonic scale. While inequal temperament scales,enharmonics are notes with identical pitch but different spellings (e.g. A♭ and G♯); in flamenco, as inunequal temperament scales, there is a microtonal intervalic difference between enharmonic notes.
Insistence on a note and its contiguous chromatic notes (also frequent in the guitar), producing a sense of urgency.
Baroqueornamentation, with an expressive, rather than merely aesthetic function.
Apparent lack of regular rhythm, especially in thesiguiriyas: the melodic rhythm of the sung line is different from the metric rhythm of the accompaniment.
Most styles express sad and bitter feelings.
Melodicimprovisation: flamenco singing is not, strictly speaking, improvised, but based on a relatively small number of traditional songs, singers add variations on the spur of the moment.
Musicologist Hipólito Rossy adds the following characteristics (Rossy 1998, 97):
Flamenco melodies are characterized by a descending tendency, as opposed to, for example, a typical operaaria, they usually go from the higher pitches to the lower ones, and fromforte topiano, as was usual in ancient Greek scales.
In many styles, such assoleá orsiguiriya, the melody tends to proceed in contiguousdegrees of the scale.Skips of a third or a fourth are rarer. However, infandangos and fandango-derived styles, fourths and sixths can often be found, especially at the beginning of each line of verse. According to Rossy, this is proof of the more recent creation of this type of songs, influenced by Castilianjota.
Compás is the Spanish word formetre ortime signature (in classicalmusic theory). It also refers to the rhythmic cycle, or layout, of apalo.
The compás is fundamental to flamenco. Compás is most often translated asrhythm but it demands far more precise interpretation than any other Western style of music. If there is no guitarist available, the compás is rendered through hand clapping (palmas) or by hitting a table with the knuckles. The guitarist uses techniques like strumming (rasgueado) or tapping thesoundboard (golpe). Changes of chords emphasize the most important downbeats.[38]
Flamenco uses three basic counts or measures: Binary, Ternary and a form of a twelve-beat cycle that is unique to flamenco. There are also free-form styles including, among others, thetonás,saetas,malagueñas, tarantos, and some types offandangos:
Rhythms in3 4. These are typical offandangos andsevillanas, suggesting their origin as non-Roma styles, since the3 4 and4 4 measures are not common in ethnic Roma music.
12-beat rhythms usually rendered in amalgams of6 8 +3 4 and sometimes12 8. The 12-beat cycle is the most common in flamenco, differentiated by the accentuation of the beats in different palos. The accents do not correspond to the classic concept of the downbeat. The alternating of groups of 2 and 3 beats is also common in Spanish folk dances of the 16th century such as thezarabanda,jácara andcanarios.
There are three types of 12-beat rhythms, which vary in their layouts, or use of accentuations: soleá, seguiriya and bulería:
peteneras andguajiras: 1 23 4 56 78 910 1112. Both palos start with the strong accent on 12. Hence the meter is12 1 23 4 56 78 910 11.
Theseguiriya, liviana,serrana, toná liviana, cabales:12 12 34 5 67 8 910 1112. It could also be counted like starting a bulerías scheme from8 (see below).
soleá, within thecantiñas group of palos which includes thealegrías, cantiñas, mirabras, romera, caracoles and soleá por bulería (also "bulería por soleá"): 1 23 4 56 78 910 1112. For practical reasons, when transferring flamenco guitar music to sheet music, this rhythm is written as a regular3 4.
TheBulerías is the emblematic palo of flamenco: today its 12-beat cycle is most often played with accents on the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 10th and 12th beats. The accompanyingpalmas are played in groups of 6 beats, giving rise to a multitude of counter-rhythms and percussive voices within the 12 beat compás. In certain regions like, Jerez, Spain, the rhythm stays in a simpler six-count rhythm, only including the twelve count in a musical resolve. This is like starting the counting at 9 so it goes this way: 910 1112 1 2 - again, bold means the emphasis when clapping. In real life it is counted from 1 like: 12 34 5 6 and so on.
The posture and technique of flamenco guitarists, called "tocaores", differs from that used by the players of classical guitar. While the classical guitarist supports the guitar on his left leg in an inclined way, the flamenco guitarist usually crosses his legs and supports it on the one that is higher, placing the neck in an almost horizontal position with respect to the ground. Modern guitarists usually use classical guitars, although there is a specific instrument for this genre calledflamenco guitar. This is less heavy, and its body is narrower than that of the classical guitar, so its sound is lower and does not overshadow the cantaor. It is usually made ofcypress wood, with the handle ofcedar and the top offir. The cypress gives it a brilliant sound very suitable for the characteristics of flamenco. Formerly, the palo santo from Rio or India was also used, being the first of higher quality, but currently it is in disuse due to its scarcity. The palo santo gave guitars an amplitude of sound especially suitable for solo playing. At present, the most widely usedheadstock is the metal one, since the wooden one posestuning problems.[39]
The main guitar makers wereAntonio de Torres Jurado (Almería, 1817–1892) considered the father of the guitar,Manuel Ramírez de Galarreta [es], the Great Ramírez (Madrid, 1864 -1920), and his disciples Santos Hernández (Madrid, 1873–1943),[40] who built several guitars for the maestroSabicas,Domingo Esteso andModesto Borreguero. Also noteworthy are the Conde Brothers, Faustino (1913–1988), Mariano (1916–1989) and Julio (1918–1996), nephews of Domingo Esteso, whose children and heirs continue the saga.
The guitarists use the technique ofalzapúa,picado,[41] thestrum and thetremolo,[42] among others. One of the first touches that is considered flamenco, such as the "rondeña", was the first composition recorded for solo guitar, byJulián Arcas (María, Almería, 1832 –Antequera, Málaga, 1882) in Barcelona in 1860. The strum can be performed with 5, 4 or 3 fingers, the latter invented bySabicas. The use of the thumb is also characteristic of flamenco playing. Guitarists rest their thumb on the guitar's soundboard and their index and middle fingers on the string above the one they are playing, thus achieving greater power and sound than the classical guitarist. The middle finger is also placed on the pickguard of the guitar for more precision and strength when plucking the string. Likewise, the use of the pickguard as an element of percussion gives great strength to flamenco guitar playing. The melodic or flourishing phrase that is inserted between the chord sequences intended to accompany the couplet is called "falseta".[43]
The accompaniment and solo playing of flamenco guitarists is based on both the modal harmonic system and the tonal system, although the most frequent is a combination of both. Some flamenco songs are performed "a palo seco" (a cappella), without guitar accompaniment.
According to the Royal Spanish Academy, "cante" is called the "action or effect of singing any Andalusian singing", defining "flamenco singing" as "agitated Andalusian singing" and cante jondo as "the most genuine song. Andalusian, of deep feeling ".[44] The interpreter of flamenco singing is calledcantaor instead of singer, with theloss of the intervocalic characteristic of the Andalusian dialect.
El baile flamenco is known for its emotional intensity, proud carriage, expressive use of the arms and rhythmic stamping of the feet, unliketap dance orIrish dance which use different techniques. As with any dance form, many different styles of flamenco have developed.[45]
In the 20th century, flamenco danced informally at gitano (Roma) celebrations in Spain was considered the most "authentic" form of flamenco. There was less virtuoso technique in gitano flamenco, but the music and steps are fundamentally the same. The arms are noticeably different from classical flamenco, curving around the head and body rather than extending, often with a bent elbow.
Flamenco, Córdoba
"Flamenco puro" otherwise known as "flamenco por derecho" is considered the form of performance flamenco closest to its gitano influences. In this style, the dance is often performed solo, and is based on signals and calls of structural improvisation rather than choreographed. In the improvisational style, castanets are not often used.
"Classical flamenco" is the style most frequently performed by Spanish flamenco dance companies. It is danced largely in a proud and upright style. For women, the back is often held in a marked back bend. Unlike the more gitano influenced styles, there is little movement of the hips, the body is tightly held, and the arms are long, like a ballet dancer. In fact, many of the dancers in these companies are trained in Ballet Clásico Español more than in the improvisational language of flamenco. Flamenco has both influenced and been influenced by Ballet Clásico Español, as evidenced by the fusion of the two ballets created by 'La Argentinita' in the early part of the 20th century and later, byJoaquín Cortés, eventually by the entireBallet Nacional de España et al.
In the 1950sJose Greco was one of the most famous male flamenco dancers, performing on stage worldwide and on television including theEd Sullivan Show, and reviving the art almost singlehandedly. Greco's company left a handful of prominent pioneers, most notably: Maria Benitez and Vicente Romero of New Mexico. Today, there are many centers of flamenco art. Albuquerque, New Mexico is considered the "Center of the Nation" for flamenco art. Much of this is due to the late (d. 2024)María Benítez's 37 years of sold-out summer seasons. Albuquerque boasts three distinct prominent centers:National Institute of Flamenco,Casa Flamenca andFlamenco Works. Each center dedicates time to daily training, cultural diffusion and world-class performance equaled only to world-class performances one would find in the heart of Southern Spain, Andalucía.
Modern flamenco is a highly technical dance style requiring years of study. The emphasis for both male and female performers is on lightning-fast footwork performed with absolute precision. In addition, the dancer may have to dance while using props such as castanets, canes, shawls and fans.
"Flamenco nuevo" is a recent marketing phenomenon in flamenco. Marketed as a "newer version" of flamenco, its roots came from world-music promoters trying to sell albums of artists who created music that "sounded like" or had Spanish-style influences. Though some of this music was played in similar pitches, scales and was well-received, it has little to nothing to do with the art of flamenco guitar, dance, cante Jondo or the improvisational language. "Nuevo flamenco" consists largely of compositions and repertoire, while traditional flamenco music and dance is a language composed of stanzas, actuated by oral formulaic calls and signals.
Los Angeles, United States
The flamenco most foreigners are familiar with is a style that was developed as a spectacle for tourists. To add variety, group dances are included and even solos are more likely to be choreographed. The frilly, voluminous spotted dresses are derived from a style of dress worn for theSevillanas at the annualFeria inSeville.
In traditional flamenco, only the very young or older dancers are considered to have the emotional innocence or maturity to adequately convey theduende (soul) of the genre (Anon. 2010). Therefore, unlike other dance forms, where dancers turn professional through techniques early on to take advantage of youth and strength, many flamenco dancers do not hit their peak until their thirties and will continue to perform into their fifties and beyond. One artist that is considered a young master is Juan Manuel Fernandez Montoya, otherwise known as "Farruquito". At age 12, Farruquito was considered a pioneer and for "flamenco puro", or "flamenco por derecho", because of his emotional depth.
In Spain, regulated flamenco studies are officially taught in various music conservatories, dance conservatories and music schools in various autonomous communities.[46]
Rafael Orozco Superior Conservatory of Music of Córdoba.
Flamenco guitar studies in official educational centers began in Spain in 1988 at the hands of the great concert performer and teacher from GranadaManuel Cano Tamayo,[47] who obtained a position as emeritus professor at theSuperior Conservatory de Música Rafael Orozco from Córdoba.
In 2018 the first university master's degree in flamenco research and analysis begins,[49] after the previous attempts of the "Doctorate Program of Approach to Flamenco", taught by several universities such as Huelva, Seville, Cádiz and Córdoba, among others.
Thefandango, which in the 17th century was the most widespread song and dance throughout Spain, eventually ended up generating local and regional variants, especially in the province of Huelva. In Alta Andalucía and bordering areas, thefandangos were accompanied with thebandola, an instrument with which they accompanied themselves following a regular beat that allowed dancing and from whose name the style derives " abandoned ". Thus arose the fandangos ofLucena, thedrones of Puente Genil, the primitivemalagueñas, therondeñas, thejaberas, thejabegotes, theverdiales, thechacarrá, thegranaína, thetaranto and thetaranta. Due to the expansion of the Sevillanas in Baja Andalusia, the fandango gradually lost its role as a support for the dance, which allowed the singer to shine and freedom, generating a multitude of fandangos of personal creation in the 20th century. Likewise, thousands of Andalusian peasants, especially from the Eastern Andalusian provinces, emigrated to the mining sitesMurcian, where thetarantos andtaranta s evolved. The Tarante deLinares, evolved into themining of the Union, theCartagena and theLevantica. At the time of the cafés cantantes, some of these cantes were separated from the dance and acquired a free beat, which allowed the performers to show off. The great promoter of this process wasAntonio Chacón, who developed precious versions of malagueñas, granainas and cantes mineros.
The stylization of romance andcord sheets gave rise tocorrido. The extraction of the romances from quatrains or three significant verses gave rise to the primitivetonás, thecaña and thepolo, which share meter and melody, but differing in their execution. The guitar accompaniment gave them a beat that made them danceable. It is believed that their origin was inRonda, a city inAlta Andalucía close toBaja Andalucía and closely related to it, and that from there they reached the Sevillian suburb ofTriana, with a great tradition of corridos, where they became thesoleá. From the festive performance of corridos and soleares, thejaleos arose in Triana, who traveled toExtremadura and in Jerez andUtrera led to thebulería, from where they spread throughout Baja Andalucía, generating local variations.
Adolfo Salazar states that the expressive voiceole, with which Andalusiancantaores andbailaores are encouraged, can come from the Hebrew verboleh which means "to throw upwards", showing that thedervish girovaghi ofTunisia,Maghreb, also dance around to the sound of repeated "ole" or "joleh".[50][51] The use of the word "arza", which is theAndalusian dialect form, of pronouncing the voiceimperative "rise", with the characteristicAndalusian equalization of / l / and / r / implosives. The indiscriminate use of the voices "arza" and "ole" is frequent when it comes tojalear, but the most evidence of the origin of this word can be from the caló:Olá, which means "come". Likewise, in Andalusia it is known as jaleo al ojeo de hunt, that is, the act of glancing, which is "driving away the game with voices, shots, blows or noise, so that they 'get up'".
According to the RAE dictionary (1956!) The "duende" in Andalusia is a "mysterious and ineffable charm", a charisma that the gitanos call duende.Federico García Lorca, in his lectureTeoría y juego del duende confirms this ineffability of the duende by defining it with the following words from Goethe: "Mysterious power that everyone feels and that no philosopher explains". In the flamenco imaginary, the duende goes beyond technique and inspiration, in Lorca's words "To search for the duende there is no map or exercise". When a flamenco artist experiences the arrival of this mysterious charm, the expressions "have duende" or sing, play or dance "with duende" are used.
Along with those previously mentioned, there are many other words and expressions characteristic of the flamenco genre, such as "tablao flamenco", "flamenco spree", "third", "aflamencar", and "flamenco".
Eachpalo within flamenco is associated with its own characteristic lexicon. While this connection had long been recognized informally, recent research has provided quantitative evidence. A computational study[52] analyzing more than 2000 flamenco lyrics appliednatural language processing andmachine learning techniques to classify songs bypalo. The findings showed that differences in vocabulary allow automatic classification of lyrics with notable accuracy. This confirmed that the distinct origins, histories, and cultural contexts of eachpalo are reflected in their lexical patterns.
The study also examined semantic fields and inter-genre distances, identifying relationships among major palos and supporting historical theories regarding their development. For example, alegrías were found to emphasize festive themes and references toCádiz, seguiriyas to convey profound concerns andRomani expressions, and bulerías to encompass a wide range of topics. A network analysis highlighted lexical connections amongpalos, with bulerías acting as a central link.
Flamenco rock – a rock music subgenre that emerged from Andalusia
Flamenco shoes – commonly leather shoes constructed with small nails embedded in the toe and heel to enhance the sound of the dancer's percussive footwork
Traje de flamenca – the dress traditionally worn by women at festivals in Andalusia; one form worn by dancers
María Pagés – a modern Spanish dancer and choreographer, considered the paramount representative of flamenco vanguard
Cristina Hoyos – a Spanish flamenco dancer, choreographer and actress who played an important role during the opening and closing ceremonies of the1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona
Vicente Amigo – a Spanish flamenco composer and guitarist
Antoñita Singla – a Catalonian flamenco dancer and actress known as "La Singla" who took Spain and Europe by storm in the period 1960–1988.
Flamenco zapateado notation – It is the graphic representation of the sonorous and motor aspects of the particular movements of flamenco dancing
^(Devorah Bennahum 2023, "The roots of flamenco, though somewhat mysterious, seem to lie in the Roma migration from Rajasthan (in northwest India) to Spain between the 9th and 14th centuries. In Spain they encountered the rich cultures of the Sephardic Jews and the Moors. Their centuries-long cultural intermingling produced the unique art form..")
^Picado consists of pressing a string with the index and middle fingers alternately, resting the fingers on the immediately superior string.
^Thetremolo which is the action of pressing the same string with the pinky, ring, middle and index finger. consecutively and quickly. It is a technique that in flamenco is executed using four fingers, while in classical guitar only three are used (ring, heart and index).
^There is also talk of playing or accompanying above (using thefingering of thechordE major) and through (A major), regardless of whether or not it was transported with thecapo.
^According to Salazar, the origin of the verbjoleh could be in the liturgicalHallel. Salazar, Adolfo.The Music of Spain. Ed. Espasa Calpe, Madrid. Austral Collection. 1514. 1975. P. 44-45.
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