TheFive Mountains and Ten Monasteries System (五山十刹制度,Chinese:Wushan Shicha, Japanese:Gozan Jissetsu Seido) system, more commonly called simplyFive Mountain System, was a network of state-sponsoredChan Buddhist temples created inChina during theSouthern Song dynasty (1127–1279), and was also later adopted for temples which specialized in scriptural Buddhist traditions, such asTiantai Buddhism andHuayan Buddhism. This system was also later implemented primarily forRinzai Zen temples inJapan during the lateKamakura period (1185–1333). The system originated in India before being adopted by China and Japan.[1] The term "mountain" in this context means "temple" or "monastery", and was adopted because the traditional name for monastics was mountain monks as many monasteries were built on isolated mountains.
In China, records by theMing dynasty (1368-1644) historianSong Lian state that the Five Mountains system was first established during the Jiading period (1208-1224) of the Southern Song byEmperor Ningzong at the request of the officialShi Miyuan (who was a follower of the eminent Chan masterDahui Zonggao), although alternative accounts of the creation of the system exists in other records.[2][3] The main Five Temples, known asWushan (五山), were selected around the then temporary Southern Song capital ofLin'an (located around modern-dayHangzhou inZhejiang), and high-ranking monks were appointed as abbots by imperial order on a rotating basis.[4][5] Immediately below the fiveWushan temples are another ten called theShicha (十刹). This list of categorizations was continued in succeeding dynasties, and separate rankings exist for both the Chan Buddhist tradition and the scriptural Buddhist tradition (which broadly includes traditions likeTiantai andHuayan).
In Japan, the ten existing "Five Mountain" temples (five inKyoto and five inKamakura, Kanagawa) were both protected and controlled by the shogunate.[1] In time, they became a sort of governmental bureaucracy that helped theAshikaga shogunate stabilize the country during the turbulentNanboku-chō period. Below the tenGozan temples there were ten so-calledJissetsu (十刹) temples, followed by another network calledShozan (諸山,lit. many temples).[6] The termsGozan and Five Mountain System are used both for the ten temples at the top and for the Five Mountain System network in general, including theJissetsu and theShozan.
There used to be in Kamakura a parallel "Five Mountain System" of nunneries calledAmagozan (尼五山), of which the famousTōkei-ji is the only survivor.[4]
At the time of the Song dynasty, Chan (JapaneseZen) was the dominant form of monasticism and had considerable imperial support.[5] This forced it to assume certain features and develop a network of monastic offices and rituals wanted by the state.[5] Around the 12th century, this tendency to monastic wealth and imperial patronage became even more pronounced with the creation by direct imperial order inSouth China of the Five Mountains and Ten Temples System (五山十刹,wushan shicha) during the late Southern Song (1127–1279).[4][5] Historical records by the historianSong Lian (1310-1381) state that the Five Mountains system was first established during the Jiading period (1208-1224) of the Southern Song byEmperor Ningzong at the request of the officialShi Miyuan (1164-1233). It was a system of state-sponsored temples and monasteries built to pray to the gods for the dynasty and the state, which was threatened by enemies from Northern China.[4][5] Officials chose both the five temples of the top tier, and the chief monastic that ruled over them.[4][5]
The famous five mountains and ten temples with regards toChan Buddhism are:[7]
| Five Mountains (五山,Wushan) | First Rank | Jingshan Temple (徑山寺,Jingshan si) inHangzhou |
| Second Rank | Lingyin Temple (靈隱寺,Lingyin si) inHangzhou | |
| Third Rank | Tiantong Temple (天童寺,Tiantong si) inNingbo | |
| Fourth Rank | Jingci Temple (净慈寺,Jingci si) inHangzhou | |
| Fifth Rank | Ayuwang Temple (阿育王寺,Ayuwang si) inNingbo | |
| Ten Temples (十刹,Shicha) | First Rank | Fajing Temple (法净寺,Fajing si), also known as Zhong Tianzhu Temple (中天竺寺,Zhong tianzhu si), inHangzhou |
| Second Rank | Wanshou Chan Temple (萬壽禪寺,Wanshou chan si) inHuzhou | |
| Third Rank | Linggu Temple (靈谷寺,Linggu si) inNanjing | |
| Fourth Rank | Bao'en Temple (報恩寺,Bao en si) inSuzhou | |
| Fifth Rank | Xuedou Temple (雪竇寺,Xuedou si) inNingbo | |
| Sixth Rank | Jiangxin Temple (江心寺,Jiangxin si) inWenzhou | |
| Seventh Rank | Chongsheng Temple (崇聖寺,Chongsheng si) inFujian | |
| Eighth Rank | Shuanglin Temple (雙林寺,Shuanglin si) inWenzhou | |
| Ninth Rank | Yunyan Temple (雲岩寺,Yunyan si) inSuzhou | |
| Tenth Rank | Guoqing Temple (國清寺, Guoqing si) onMount Tiantai |
Temples under the Song dynasty were broadly categorized into three classes based on their specializations:Chan (禪, lit: "dhyana"), Jiao (教, lit: "teachings") and Lü (律, lit: "Vinaya"), where the Jiao class encompassed various Buddhist traditions based heavily on scriptures such asTiantai andHuayan.[8] A similar Five Mountains system of ranking was also applied to temples under the Jiao class:[9]
| Five Mountains (五山,Wushan) | First Rank | Faxi Temple (法喜寺,Faxi si), also known as Shang Tianzhu Temple (中天竺寺,Shang tianzhu si), inHangzhou |
| Second Rank | Fajing Temple (法鏡寺,Lingyin si), also known as Xia Tianzhu Temple (下天竺寺,Xia tianzhu si), inHangzhou | |
| Third Rank | Nengren Temple (能仁寺,Nengren si) inWenzhou | |
| Fourth Rank | Yanqing Temple (延慶寺,Yanqing si) inNingbo | |
| Fifth Rank | Unknown | |
| Ten Temples (十刹,Shicha) | First Rank | Jiqing Chan Temple (集慶禪寺,Jiqing chan si) inHangzhou |
| Second Rank | Chongsheng Yanfu Temple (崇恩演福寺,Chongsheng yanfu si) inHangzhou | |
| Third Rank | Pufu Temple (普福寺,Pufu si) inHangzhou | |
| Fourth Rank | Cigan Temple (慈感寺,Cigan si) inSuzhou | |
| Fifth Rank | Puji Temple (普濟寺,Xuedou si) onMount Putuo | |
| Sixth Rank | Huxin Temple (湖心寺,Huxin si) inWenzhou | |
| Seventh Rank | Dashan Temple (大善寺,Dashan si) inFujian | |
| Eighth Rank | Bei Temple (北寺,Bei si) inWenzhou | |
| Ninth Rank | Yanshou Temple (延壽寺,Yunyan si) inShanghai | |
| Tenth Rank | Waguan Temple (瓦棺寺, Guoqing si) inNanjing |
The system was devised specifically to bureaucratize and control the power of the Chan temples, a power which had been growing with the years and worried the central government.[4] The consequent submission of the Chan network to imperial power and its goals is evident in later codes, particularly in theBaizhang qinggui compiled in 1336.[5] Because the conqueringMongols financially supported Chan, the code emphasizes prayers for the emperor and the monastic ancestors.[5] The emperor is even described as anirmanakaya, or incarnate Buddha.[5] The complex monastic bureaucracy described by the code clearly reflects the imperial administration with its eastern and western ranks.[5] The code has been in continuous use ever since, and not only within Chan Buddhism.[5]
Introduced to Japan by theHōjō regency, after an initial hostility from older and established Buddhist sects, it prospered thanks to the support of the country's military rulers in Kamakura first and Kyoto later.[10] In the final version of the system, Kamakura's Five Mountains were, from the first-ranked to the last,Kenchō-ji,Engaku-ji,Jufuku-ji,Jōchi-ji andJōmyō-ji. Kyoto's Five Mountains, created later by the Ashikaga shogunate after the collapse of theKamakura regime, wereTenryū-ji,Shōkoku-ji,Kennin-ji,Tōfuku-ji andManju-ji. Above them all was the hugeNanzen-ji temple. Below the top tier there was a nationwide capillary network of smaller temples that allowed its influence to be felt everywhere.[10]
The system was adopted to promote Zen in Japan however, in Japan as it had already happened in China, it was controlled and used by the country's ruling class for its own administrative and political ends.[10] TheGozan system allowed the temples at the top to function asde facto ministries, using their nationwide network of temples for the distribution of government laws and norms, and for the monitoring of local conditions for their military superiors.[10] The Hōjō first, and the Ashikaga later were therefore able to disguise their power under a religious mask, while monks and priests worked for the government as translators, diplomats and advisers.[10] To the Rinzai sect, the collaboration with the shogunate brought wealth, influence and political clout.
The system had come to Japan at a time when Kamakura's five great Zen temples were already known as the Five Mountains, and it unified in one organization all the great temples of the dominant Zen schools of the time.[6] It thus institutionalized a large and very important part of theRinzai school, bringing to it the protection, but also the control of the state.[6] The whole network of temples was supervised by a state bureaucracy created specifically for the task.[6]
The system in its final form had three tiers, with at the top Kyoto's Five Mountains (theKyoto Gozan (京都五山), known in English also as Kyoto'sFive Zen Temples) and Kamakura's Five Mountains (theKamakura Gozan (鎌倉五山), in a subordinate position).[6] Below them were the so-called Ten Temples, orJissetsu, with at the bottom other temples collectively known asShozan.[6]
TheGozan temples were dominated mainly by theRinzai Zen schools. The Kōchi-ha (宏智派) branch of theSōtō Zen school however belonged to theGozan system too.
Under their masters' patronage, the Five Mountain temples gradually became centers of learning and developed a characteristic literature called theJapanese Literature of the Five Mountains.[6] During this time, its scholars exerted a far-reaching influence on the internal political affairs of the country. The system put great value in a strong orientation towards Chinese Zen, Chinese philosophy and Chinese literature. The organization's scholars had a close relationship with theMing imperial dynasty, had a pervasive influence in many cultural fields and played an important role in importingNeo-Confucianism (particularly as far as theshushigaku (朱子学) is concerned) from China to Japan.
At the end of theKamakura period (1333) the four temples ofKennin-ji,Kenchō-ji,Engaku-ji andJufuku-ji, were already known as theGozan, but not much is otherwise known about the system, its structure and the hierarchical order.[1]
The first official recognition of the system came from EmperorGo-Daigo during the briefKenmu Restoration (1333–1336). Go-Daigo added theKyoto Gozan to the existing temples in Kamakura withDaitoku-ji andNanzen-ji together at the top as number 1, followed byKennin-ji andTōfuku-ji. At this point in time, in spite of their name, theGozan were not five but four in both cities.[1] At the beginning ofMuromachi period, they became five in Kyoto later, whenAshikaga Takauji builtTenryū-ji in memory of Go-Daigo.
The first explicit formulation of a clearGozan ranking system dates to the year 1341.
| First Rank | Kenchō-ji, Kamakura |
| Nanzen-ji, Kyōto | |
| Second Rank | Engaku-ji, Kamakura |
| Tenryū-ji, Kyōto | |
| Third Rank | Jufuku-ji, Kamakura |
| Fourth Rank | Kennin-ji, Kyōto |
| Fifth Rank | Tōfuku-ji, Kyōto |
| Subtemple (orjun-gozan) | Jōchi-ji, Kamakura |
The system was modified again many times according to the preferences of the government and of the Imperial Household.
From their base cities of Kamakura and Kyoto, the twin Five Mountains Systems had great influence over the entire country.[6] Following the advice ofMusō Soseki, shōgunAshikaga Takauji and his brotherAshikaga Tadayoshi decided to strengthen the system through the building in every province of anAnkoku-ji (安国寺,Temple for National Pacification) and aRishō-tō (利生塔,Pagoda for the welfare of sentient beings).[6]
These were dedicated to the memory of the dead of theGenkō War of 1331-3, war in which Emperor Go-Daigo broke the power of theHōjō clan.Emperor Kōgon promulgated in 1345 an edict for the deployment of the new system, and from 1362 to 1367 the temples and the pagodas were built in 66 provinces.[6]
TheAnkoku-ji network was tightly controlled by Ashikagashugo (Governors) and was associated with theGozan system.[6] TheRishō-tō were direct property of theGozan, with the exception of those associated with the Ashikaga, which were connected to powerful temples of non-Rinzai schools, mainly of theShingon,Tendai andRisshū sects.[6]
Both brothers died early (Tadayoshi in 1352, according to theTaiheiki of poisoning, and Takauji in 1358 of cancer), so they couldn't oversee the system's creation until its end.
The system was completed underAshikaga Yoshimitsu when he was 10 years old. During his fatherAshikaga Yoshiakira's regency, who was until his death busy with the war with theSouthern Court, the Ashikaga governors had become however strong and independent warlords. Even though as a consequence the provinces didn't accept any more the oversight of theGozan and of theshogunate, theGozan/Ankoku-ji system remained a valuable instrument to control the various Zen sects.
After the completion ofShōkoku-ji by Yoshimitsu in 1386 a new ranking system was created withNanzen-ji at the top and in a class of its own.[6] Nanzen-ji had the title of "First Temple of The Land" and played a supervising role.[6]
| Nanzen-ji | ||
| Kyoto | Kamakura | |
|---|---|---|
| First Rank | Tenryū-ji | Kenchō-ji |
| Second Rank | Shōkoku-ji | Engaku-ji |
| Third Rank | Kennin-ji | Jufuku-ji |
| Fourth Rank | Tōfuku-ji | Jōchi-ji |
| Fifth Rank | Manju-ji | Jōmyō-ji |
This structure then remained more or less unchanged for the rest of the system's history.[1]
TheJissetsu, second tier of the Five Mountain system, was created to be hierarchically under theGozan, but developed slowly towards an independent system.[6] The temples of this rank were in general powerful institutions of great prestige and had to help the military government financially and in other ways.[6]
During the Kenmu restoration temples likeJōmyō-ji inSagami Province and Manju-ji (万寿寺) inBungo Province were already part of the system, which is therefore assumed to have been born during the late Kamakura period.[11] Nothing else is known however about the character and structure of the system at the time. In 1341 the system included Jōmyō-ji, Zenkō-ji (禅興寺),Tōshō-ji and Manju-ji in Sagami province, Manju-ji,Shinnyō-ji (真如寺), andAnkoku-ji (安国寺) inYamashiro Province, Chōraku-ji (長楽寺) inKōzuke Province, Shōfuku-ji (聖福寺) inChikuzen Province and Manju-ji in Bungo.[11]
After many changes, in 1386 the system was divided in half between theKantō Jissetsu, that is the temples under theKamakura Gozan, and theKyoto Jissetsu, that is the temples under theKyoto Gozan.[11]
The KyotoJissetsu were thenTōji-in (等持院), Rinsen-ji (臨川寺),Shinnyō-ji (真如寺),Ankoku-ji (安国寺), Hōdō-ji (宝幢寺), Fumon-ji (普門寺), Kōkaku-ji (広覚寺), Myōkō-ji (妙光寺),Daitoku-ji (大徳寺) and Ryūshō-ji (竜翔寺).[11]
TheKantō Jissetsu were Zenkō-ji (禅興寺),Zuisen-ji (瑞泉寺),Tōshō-ji (東勝寺), Manju-ji (万寿寺), Taikei-ji (大慶寺), Zenpuku-ji (善福寺), and Hōsen-ji (法泉寺) in Sagami, plus Kōsei-ji (興聖寺) inMutsu Province, Tōzen-ji (東漸寺) inMusashi Province and Chōraku-ji (長楽寺) in Kōzuke.[11]
Later, the termJissetsu lost its original meaning and became just a rank. Consequently, at the end of the Middle Ages it included over 60 temples.[11]
The third and lowest tier was that of the so-calledShozan, sometimes also calledkassatsu,kōsatsu orkassetsu (甲刹) as the corresponding tier of the Chinese state-sponsored temple system.[12] These last terms are however normally used only in writing for elegance.[13] The term in China meant "first in rank" in a certain province, but in Japan this meaning was lost.[13]
We know that in 1321 Sagami province's Sūju-ji (崇寿寺) and in 1230Higo Province's Jushō-ji (寿勝寺) were part of the system, which therefore must be older.[12] More temples from all parts of the country were added later during the Kemmu restoration. Unlike theGozan and theJissetsu, theShozan were not ordered hierarchically and there were no limits to their number, which consequently grew until more than 230 temples belonged to the system.[12] A Zen chief priest (ajūji (住持)) in his career would usually rise from theShozan to theJissetsu and finally to theGozan.[12]
Apart from theGozan temples, there were also many others in the provinces calledRinka (林下,the forest below), among themSōtō'sEihei-ji founded byDōgen, and Rinzai'sDaitoku-ji,Myōshin-ji andKōgen-ji, which were not under the direct control of the state. During Japan's Middle Ages, theRinka monasteries were Zen's other main branch.[14] Unlike the Five Mountain temples, they placed little emphasis on Chinese culture, were run by less well-educated monks who preferredzazen andkōan to poetry.[6] Rinka Zen prospered among the lower layers of the warrior, merchant and peasant castes, who saw religion as a means to achieve simple worldly goals such as profits and exorcisms.[6]
The very lack of political connection which had hampered them at the beginning of their history was however the reason why they prospered later. During the slow decline of Ashikaga authority, and particularly after the catastrophicŌnin war, in the latter half of theMuromachi period, because theRinka had a close relationship with localwarlords, they became progressively more important and influential than theGozan, which followed their Ashikaga masters in their decline.[6][14] A measure of the success of theRinka is given by the fact that today'sSōtō andRinzai sects emerged fromRinka Zen.[14]
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