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| Alternative names | Fish sound Translations
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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Type | Fish,offal | ||||||
| Associatedcuisine | |||||||
| Main ingredients | Swim bladder | ||||||
| Chinese name | |||||||
| Chinese | 花胶 | ||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 花膠 | ||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 魚肚 | ||||||
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Fish maw (alsofish sound) is theswim bladder[a] of afish, eaten asoffal. Typically dried or fried but also cooked from fresh, fish maw is largelycollagen. It is atraditional food in cuisines dominated byfishing, and a particulardelicacy inChinese cuisine—one of thefour sea delicacies—as well as a valued ingredient intraditional Chinese medicine. The modern demand for fish maw fromPacific Asia supportswildlife trade worldwide for quality fish maw, which has in turn led towildlife smuggling andpoaching.
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Fish maw is typically preserved by eitherdrying or frying. The standard for fish maw is a consistent white-yellow color with minimal odor. Fish maw is prepared by soaking, and takes on a soft yettoothsome, slippery consistency when cooked.[2][3]
The size and body weight ratio of swim bladders varies significantly depending on the region and species: on theArafura Sea, an average fish bladder weighs 40 grams (1.4 oz), in a ~1:112.5 ratio against the total fish's weight;[4] on the coast of Brazil, maw to flesh ratio ranges from 1:20 to 1:70;[5] and in Vietnam,pangasius maw is a 1:7 weight ratio.[6]
The swim bladder is attached to thefish's spine, and is removed during processing. High value fish maw is typically removed and dried onboard fishing vessels when conditions allow.[7][8]
Establishedcommercial fishing industries worldwide sellswim bladders asby-product to fish maw importers. In 2018, theNorwegian fishing industry supplied over 25% of the world fish maw market share, largely withcodfish, followed byRussia at 14.9%. Other prominent exporters in the Chinese fish maw import market includeIceland, which exports cod andtrue ling, andNew Zealand, which exportsGenypterus blacodes or New Zealand ling.[9][10]
The Chinese demand forwild-caught fish maw, particularly from exotic foreign fish, has increased significantly since thereform and opening up of China. The greatest determiner of value is the origin species.Sciaenidae (croakers or drums) maw demands the highest price, for its perceived superior quality over other species. The average price per kilogram for fish maw is 72 times higher than the price of flesh, and can reach over 8000 times higher in extreme circumstances like thetotoaba trade; in these cases, the rest of the fish becomesbyproduct, and is often discarded.[5][11]
The fish maw trade inBrazil has grown significantly since fishermen pivoted from theshark's fin trade; the Brazilian government bannedshark finning in 2012, and has introduced other restrictions on shark fishing since. Between 2015 and 2018, Brazil was the largest exporter of fish maw to Hong Kong at 3,300 tonnes (3,600 short tons), valued atHK$3 billion; 95% of exported maws came fromPara, Brazil. Brazilian export of fish byproducts, including fish maw, increased by 398% from 2012 to 2020; 97% of fish byproducts were exported to China in 2021.[11] Mirroring worldwide trends,Sciaenidae maw fetches the highest price at market in Brazil;Ariidae maw, although being significantly larger, is frequently sold in unsorted bulk (Portuguese:ariru).[5]
As of 2022,India is one of five countries that produced 50% of the world fish bladder supply and 70% of its value. The Indian swim bladder trade dates back to the 1800s forisinglass production, and has been regulated by the Indian government under theHarmonized System since 2002. Increasing demand from East Asia has driven fishing ofcroakers in particular, fueling anauction market in the major fishing and export portsChennai,Kolkata,Mumbai andVeraval. There is little domestic Indian demand for fish maw.[12]
Bangladesh has a developing fish maw trade in theKarnaphuli delta targeting the high-value maws ofJohnius coitor [es] (datina koral) andPomadasys argenteus, andIndian salmon. Less valuable but still traded fish maw species includePangasius hypophthalmus,Labeo rohita,Catla catla,Wallago attu, andLeptomelanosoma indicum.[9][13]
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Introduced in the 1950s, the population ofNile perch inLake Victoria has been targeted for its maw since the mid-2010s inUganda,Kenya andTanzania. Originally,skiff ownerscontract fishermen to fish for perch; the owners pay the fishermen, retain the fish and sell the maws to fish maw export companies. In 2018, theGovernment of Uganda introduced a law where the fish maw could not be removed until resale to afish processing plant; official production of fish maw dropped sharply, possibly due to under-reporting fromsmuggling. In 2021, the government introduced a 7-percent export tariff on fish maw, in anticipation of aChinese trade deal; the September 2024Forum on China–Africa Cooperation eliminated the tariffs.[14][15][16]
2024 Vietnamese export ofpangasius maw has increased to aboutUS$58,000,000, with 38% going to China and the rest to Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and the USA. TheVietnam News Agency claims that the fallingtotoaba population has incentivized Chinese import of alternative maw.[6]
The island and seas ofNew Guinea see significant fish maw production. Since 2012, in and around theKikori River delta ofPapua New Guinea, the scaly croakerNibea squamosa [es] has been targeted ingillnetting for its extremely high-priced maw, selling for as much asUS$15,615 per kilogram.[17][4]
Recipes for fish maw, specificallycodfish maw, are documented inHannah Glasse's 1747English cuisine cookbookThe Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy: fish maw is presented in gravy, broiled, and as africassee.[18] Cod maw was later described as a 'delicacy' in the 1911 American food industry encyclopedia,The Grocer's Encyclopedia, byArtemas Ward.[19]
Cod maw is atraditional food ofNewfoundland, owing to the ubiquity of thecod fishing industry. It was typicallysalted for preservation until use, then boiled and stewed. The popularity of cod maw dropped in the late 20th century along withcod tongue andcheeks, but has begun to see a resurgence withculinary tourism and interest innose to tail eating.[20]
In Portugal,Codfish maw (Portuguese:sames) wassalted and brought to shore to be eaten as a fisherman's dish. Portuguese sailors fromFigueira da Foz would rely on codfish maw as abyproduct ofcod fishing in Newfoundland.[7]Feijoada is traditionally made with fish maw instead of pork in Figueira da Foz (Feijoada de sames).[21]
Fish maw (Chinese:魚肚,yúdǔ;Yue Chinese:花胶,fa kau[2];Mandarin Chinese:花膠,huājiāo[22]) or "sea ginseng"[23] is adelicacy inChinese cuisine, particularlyZhejiang cuisine. Consumption of fish maw in China may go back to theHan Dynasty,c. 206 BCE-220 CE.[24] TheHistory of the Southern Dynasties documents fish maw soaked inhoney being served in royal court during theNorthern and Southern dynasties period,c. 420-589 CE.[3] Consumption ofrockfish fish maw was documented in the 6th centuryQimin Yaoshu.[25]
Fish maw is one of thefour sea delicacies of Chinese cuisine, along withabalone,sea cucumber, andshark's fin. Fish maw from larger fish species is more prestigious; therestaurant trade buys smaller maw. Fish maw from male fish is preferred for its relative thickness and resilience to dissolving.[2][23] Until the late 20th century, the Chinese bahaba or giant yellow croakerBahaba taipingensis of theChina Seas was the premier source of fish maw. However,overfishing has driven the Chinese bahaba population to near-extinction, and raised demand for similar fish, particular the relatedSciaenidae.[8][26]
Fish maw, particularly of rare fish, is highly valued intraditional Chinese medicine. TCM practitioners recommend fish maw for thepost-partum period andrecovering from surgery. It is also valued as acosmetic: its high level ofcollagen is believed to improve one's skin.[25][27]
As of 2016,Southern China andHong Kong had the largest demand for fish maw.[26]
TheEnvironmental Investigation Agency in 2016 estimated that 34 species of fish were being traded on the wider Chinese fish maw market.Sciaenidae (croakers/drums) are typically the most valued, due to their similarity to the historically prized and critically endangeredChinese bahaba. Other targeted fishes includeeels,stonefishes,lates perch,groupers,threadfins andsturgeon.[2][26][8][11][12]
InPeranakan cuisine acrossMaritime Southeast Asia, fish maw is a traditionalChinese New Year food. The ingredient features particularly inhee pio soup (a.k.a.hu pioh t'ng), a clear soup of fish maw paired with a varied selection of other vegetables and proteins.[28][29]
InThailand, aThai cuisine fish maw dish iskaeng tai pla (Thai:แกงไตปลา), aSouthern Thai fishermen dish featuringtai pla, fermented fish maw.[30]Krapaw pla [th] is aThai-Chinese fish maw stew in ared braise.[31][32]
Vietnamese cuisine does not typically feature fish maw,[33] but fish maw is sometimes featured inxúp cua [vi], a Vietnamese crab soup (súp cua bong bóng cá).[34][35]
A major target of poaching is thetotoaba in theGulf of California, due to its perceived similarity to the traditional high-grade swim bladder ofBahaba taipingensis. The totoaba, a critically endangered species, is protected byCITES. Poachers usegillnets to capture the totoaba, and often remove the valuable bladder and toss the dead fish into the sea to minimize evidence.[26]
Poaching operations were backed by atransnational organized crime ring known by the moniker 'the Dragon Cartel' (Spanish:Cártel del Dragón): a cooperation betweenChinese organized crime andMexican cartels, particularly theSinaloa cartel, operating inMexicali, Baja California. Mexican cartels poached totoaba maw (Spanish:buches) andsmuggled them through local restaurateurs to international ports likeVancouver, and traded them with Chinese criminals for the chemical precursors tofentanyl. As of 2021, a single totoaba maw sold for US$3-5,000 equivalent in Mexico, US$10-15,000 in the US, and US$60,000 in China. For its high price and involvement withdrug trafficking, totoaba maw has been given the media moniker "cocaine of the sea".[36][37][38][17]
In 2019, internal documents of theSecretariat of Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT) of Mexico claimed that the government has minimally investigated cartel activity.[b] SEMARNAT's prosecution branchPROFEPA [es] opened 42 investigations into totoaba poaching between 2012 and 2021, resulting in two arrests.[36] In early 2023, AdmiralJosé Rafael Ojeda Durán, theSecretary of the Navy, declared that the Dragon Cartel had been dismantled after a multi-agency operation arrested seven leaders of the ring in Mexico.[39]
In major re-export hubs likeSingapore,Malaysia andHong Kong, fish maw is frequently mislabeled as more expensive varieties of fish, due to high profit incentive and the high level of visual similarity between disparately priced species.[1][22]
HK Magazine in 2007 described two incidents of counterfeit fish maw in Hong Kong: one of dried rabbit ear, and the other of shoe rubber.[40]
Hong Kong is a major stop-over for foreign fish maw to besmuggled into mainland China, in order to circumvent food-safety import laws and import duties to mainland China.[8][26][15]
InKenya, fish mawfished from Lake Victoria is smuggled through toUganda andTanzania to avoid export duties toChina, as China charges a GDP-dependent duty on imports.[14]
InLake Victoria fishing operations, there is an endemic issue ofcontracted fisherman side-selling the maw ofNile perch to middlemen instead of giving the catch to the contractor: middlemen rendezvous and buy maw on the lake, and the fish carcass is discarded into the lake to destroy evidence.[14]
Hong Kong company Avant Meats has developed acultured meat replacement for fish maw. As of 2021, the company claims to produce cultured fish maw at a cost ofUS$70 per pound.[41]
Gillnets may be used in fish maw fishing. However, gillnets can have high rates ofbycatch. In theGulf of California, gillnets set bypoachers to catchtotoaba also inadvertently catchvaquita, a critically endangered porpoise. The population of vaquita dropped 92% from 1997 to 2015, in large part from totoaba poaching.[26] The 2019 documentarySea of Shadows documented and condemned totoaba poaching and its negative effect on the vaquita population.[36]
In theKikori River Delta ofPapua New Guinea, gillnet fishermen trying to target the scaly croakerNibea squamosa [es] regularly trapelasmobranchs anddolphins as bycatch: targeted fish make up less than a quarter of the total catch.[17]
In commercial fishing on theArafura Sea off ofWestern New Guinea, as much as 51.4% of fish catch by weight was discarded at sea in favor of the swim bladder in 2018.[4]
Fish dumping onLake Victoria after removing the swim bladder fromNile perch has led toeutrophication of the lake.[14][42]
Overfishing of fish species targeted for their fish bladders has led to fish stock collapse. The first major population decline from the swim bladder trade was of the Chinese bahaba or giant yellow croakerBahaba taipingensis of theChina Seas. While Chinese bahaba fishing was banned for domestic trade in 1989 after the classification of the fish as Class II under theWildlife Protection Law of the People's Republic of China [zh], the Chinese bahaba population continued to decline and was added to theIUCN Red List in 2009.[8]
Thetotoaba began to be targeted for its perceived similarity to the Chinese bahaba by the 1920s, and increased in scope until it was categorized as avulnerable species.[8]
OnLake Victoria, there is increased usage of illegalmonofilament nets and targeting of undersized fish, impacting theNile perch population. Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania have beach patrols and fishing regulations to regulate the fish maw trade.[14][43]
Cá là một thực phẩm rất quen thuộc đối với các gia đình Việt. Tuy nhiên, trong con cá, có một bộ phận rất ngon, giàu dinh dưỡng nhưng nhiều người lại có thói quen không ăn nên vứt bỏ. Đó chính là bong bóng cá.[Fish is a very familiar food for Vietnamese families. However, in the fish, there is a very delicious and nutritious part that many people have the habit of not eating and therefore discard. That's the fish bladder.]
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| Shellfish | |
| Other seafood | |
| Processed seafood | |
| Seafood dishes | |
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