Philippine Republic | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1899–1901 (de jure) or 1902 (de facto)[a] | |||||||||
| Motto: Libertad, Justicia, y Igualdad (English:"Liberty, Justice, and Equality") (Tagalog:"Kalayaan, Katarungan, at Kapantay-pantayan")[citation needed] | |||||||||
| Anthem: Marcha Nacional Filipina (English:"Philippine National March") | |||||||||
 Territory controlled by the Philippine Republic, most of which it occupied except Manila and parts of Mindanao. | |||||||||
| Status | Unrecognized state | ||||||||
| Capital | Malolos[b] | ||||||||
| Largest city | Manila (untilFebruary 5, 1899) | ||||||||
| Official languages | Spanish[c] | ||||||||
| Common languages | Philippine languages | ||||||||
| Religion | Secular state Majority: Roman Catholicism Minority: Indigenous religion,Sunni Islam | ||||||||
| Demonym | Filipino | ||||||||
| Government | 1899: Unitaryparliamentaryconstitutional republic under amilitary dictatorship 1899–1902: Unitaryparliamentary republic with an executive presidency | ||||||||
| President | |||||||||
• 1899–1901 | Emilio Aguinaldo (first) | ||||||||
• 1901–1902 | Miguel Malvar (last;unofficial) | ||||||||
| Prime Minister | |||||||||
• 1899 | Apolinario Mabini (first) | ||||||||
• 1899 | Pedro Paterno (last) | ||||||||
| Legislature | National Assembly | ||||||||
| Historical era | Philippine–American War | ||||||||
| January 23, 1899[d] | |||||||||
• De jure dissolution | 19 April 1901 | ||||||||
• De facto dissolution | 16 April 1902 | ||||||||
| Area | |||||||||
| 1898[10][better source needed] | 298,719 km2 (115,336 sq mi) | ||||||||
| Population | |||||||||
• 1898[10] | 7,832,719 | ||||||||
| Currency | Peso | ||||||||
| |||||||||
ThePhilippine Republic (Spanish:República Filipina), retroactively known as theFirst Philippine Republic or theMalolos Republic, was a state established inMalolos, Bulacan, during thePhilippine Revolution against theSpanish Empire (1896–1898) through the promulgation of theMalolos Constitution on January 23, 1899, succeeding theRevolutionary Government of the Philippines.Emilio Aguinaldo was its inaugural president.[11] It was not recognized by any foreign power, but remained a de facto government.[a]Following the American victory at theBattle of Manila Bay, Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines, issued thePhilippine Declaration of Independence on June 12, 1898, and proclaimed successive revolutionary Philippine governments on June 18 and 23 of that year, under which regimes the liberation of Philippine territory from Spain was conducted.
In December 1898, Spain and the United States signed the1898 Treaty of Paris, ending the Spanish–American war. As part of the treaty, Spain ceded its claim to the Philippines to the United States. The treaty was not considered as in effect until April 11, 1899, when mutual ratifications were exchanged. The Revolutionary Government considered the treaty invalid, and in the meantime had been drafting a republican constitution to succeed its current regime. On on January 21, 1899, the Malolos Constitution was promulgated, and the Republic was inaugurated on January 23. On February 4,fighting had erupted in Manila between American and Filipino forces in what developed into thePhilippine–American War.[e] Aguinaldo was captured by the American forces on March 23, 1901, inPalanan,Isabela, and he declared allegiance to the U.S. on April 19, 1901, effectively ending the Philippine Republic.[14][15]
The First Philippine Republic is sometimes characterized as the first proper constitutional republic in Asia,[16][17][18] although there were several Asian republics predating it – for example, theMahajanapadas of ancient India, theLanfang Republic, theRepublic of Formosa, or theRepublic of Ezo. Aguinaldo himself had led a number of governments prior to Malolos, like those established atTejeros andBiak-na-Bato which both styled themselvesRepública de Filipinas ("Republic of the Philippines"). Unlike the founding documents of those governments, however, the Malolos Constitution was drafted and approved by a partially elected congress and called for a true representative democracy.[11][19]
In 1896, the Philippine Revolution began against Spanish colonial rule. In 1897, Philippine forces led by Aguinaldo signed aceasefire with the Spanish authorities and Aguinaldo and other leaders went intoexile in Hong Kong. In April 1898, the Spanish–American War broke out. The U.S. Navy's Asiatic Squadron, then in Hong Kong, sailed to the Philippines to engage the Spanish naval forces. On May 1, 1898, the U.S. Navydecisively defeated the Spanish Naval force and blockaded Manila Bay.[20] The American naval commander, lacking forces to conduct land operations following his unexpectedly complete victory, returned Aguinaldo and a number of other revolutionary exiles to the Philippines from Hong Kong.[21]
Aguinaldo arrived in the Philippines on May 24 and on that date, proclaimed adictatorial government, rekindling thePhilippine Revolution[22][23] (formally established by decree on June 18[24]). On June 12, he issued thePhilippine Declaration of Independence from Spain at his ancestral home in Cavite. The Dictatorial Government was replaced by arevolutionary government on June 23, which conducted a mass liberation of the islands from Spanish rule. It provided for the creation of theMalolos Congress, a legislative body partially elected and partially appointed, which convened on September 15 to write a constitution.[25][26]
On December 10, 1898, the1898 Treaty of Paris was signed between Spain and the United States, ending theSpanish–American War and transferring the former's claim to the Philippines to the latter. The Revolutionary Government, through its accredited representative,Felipe Agoncillo, previously had an unproductive audience with the President of the United States, and now sought representation in the talks at Paris; Filipino representation was not granted and Agoncillo filed a protest against the Spanish act of ceding the Philippines, characterizing it as invalid under international law and therefore not binding. Agoncillo further contested the treaty and pushed for recognition of Philippine independence with theAmerican Department of State and later theUnited States Senate, but his protests were paid no mind.[27][28]
The draft constitution, chiefly written byFelipe Calderón, was approved by the Congress in December 1898, but Mabini, through Aguinaldo, drafted amendments that allowed the President torule by decree until other nations gave diplomatic recognition to the country. In response, the Congress named a commission headed by Calderón to investigate the proposed amendments, with the final report thoroughly objecting to Mabini's proposals, but a compromise was made and certain provisions were included in the final constitution, approved on January 20. Aguinaldo promulgated the constitution the next day, and the inauguration of the Constitution was scheduled for January 23. The constitution was titled "Constitución política", and was written in Spanish.[29][30][31][32][f]
On January 23, the Revolutionary Congress, upon swearing fealty to the constitution, assumed the functions of the Assembly of Representatives. Immediately after, it proceeded to elect the President of the Republic according to the provisions of the constitution, and unanimously elected Emilio Aguinaldo, now considered as the president of a former government. He was notified of his election by a commission named by the Congress and brought in a procession from theMalolos Cathedral, the seat of the presidency, toBarasoain Church, the seat of the Congress, where he swore hisoath of office, administered by the President of the Congress,Pedro Paterno; the formula read by Aguinaldo, recorded in Tagalog, was: "I swear in thename of God that I will faithfully execute my duty, execute and cause to be executed the Constitution and the Laws, and take care that nobody shall violate the Mother Country." Paterno replied with: "If you do this, may God bless you. And if you don’t, may God punish you." Aguinaldo's oath was followed by aninaugural address. The inauguration of the Republic was celebrated by a parade of soldiers numbering 6,000 at the townplaza, and the celebration culminated in a display of the national flag to the sound of the national march. The inauguration was celebrated simultaneously in the surrounding towns.[34][35]
Hostilities erupted between U.S. and Filipino forces in the suburbs of Manila, which until then had been the site of tensions between the Americans who controlled the capital city and the Filipinos who controlled the surrounding suburbs.[38][39] That day President Aguinaldo issued a proclamation ordering and commanding that "peace and friendly relations with the Americans be broken and that the latter be treated as enemies, within the limits prescribed by the laws of war".[40] The fighting quickly escalated into theSecond Battle of Manila, with Philippine Republic's forces being driven out of the city.Caloocan would be captured on February 10 by northward-moving American forces.[41][42]On March 29, as American forces threatened Malolos, the seat of government moved to San Isidro, Nueva Ecija.[43] On March 31, American forces captured Malolos, the initial seat of the Philippine Republic government, which had been gutted by fires set by withdrawing Philippine Republic forces.[44] Emilio Aguinaldo and the core of the revolutionary government had by then moved toSan Isidro, Nueva Ecija.[45] Peace negotiations with the AmericanSchurman Commission during a brief ceasefire in April–May 1899 failed,[45] and San Isidro fell to American forces on May 16.[46] The Philippine Republic core government had moved by then toBamban, Tarlac, and subsequently moved toTarlac town.[47] Aguinaldo's party had already left Tarlac, the last capital of the Philippine Republic, by the time American troops occupied it on November 13.[48]
American forces capturedCalumpit, Bulacan on April 27 and, moving north, capturedApalit, Pampanga with little opposition on May 4 andSan Fernando, Pampanga on May 5. This forced the seat of government to be shifted according to the demands of the military situation.[49]
In October 1899, American forces were inSan Fernando, Pampanga and the Philippine Republic was headquartered not far north of there, inAngeles City. On October 12, an American offensive to the north forced the Philippine Republic to relocate its headquarters in November to Tarlac, and then toBayambang, Pangasinan.[50] On November 13, under pressure by American forces, Aguinaldo and a party departed Bayambang by rail forCalasiao, from where they immediately proceeded eastwards toSanta Barbara in order to evade pursuing American forces. There, they joined a force of some 1200 armed men led by GeneralGregorio del Pilar.[51]
Aguinaldo had decided in aa November 13 conference in Bayambang to disperse his army and beginguerrilla war. From that point on, distance and the localistic nature of the fighting prevented him from exercising a strong influence on revolutionary or military operations.[48] Recognizing that American troops blocked his escape east, he turned north and west on November 15, crossing the mountains intoLa Union province.[52] Aguinaldo's party eluded pursuing American forces, passing through Tirad Pass nearSagada, Mountain Province where theBattle of Tirad Pass was fought on December 2 as arear guard action to delay the American advance and ensure his escape. At the time of the battle, Aguinaldo and his party were encamped inCervantes, about 10 km south of the pass. After being notified by a rider of the outcome of the battle and the death of del Pilar, Aguinaldo ordered that camp be broken, and departed with his party for Cayan settlement.[53]
Aguinaldo's party, traveling with del Pilar's force, reachedManaoag, Pangasinan on November 15. There, the force was split intovanguard and rear guard elements, with Aguinaldo and del Pilar in the vanguard.[54] The vanguard force overnighted inTubao, La Union, departed there on November 16, and was inNaguilian, La Union by November 19, where word was received that American forces had takenSanto Tomas and had proceeded toAringay. Aguinaldo's force arrived inBalaoan, La Union on November 19, pushed on the next day, and arrived at the Tirad Pass, a naturalchoke point, on November 23. General del Pilar decided to place a blocking force in Tirad Pass to delay pursuing American forces while Aguinaldo's party moved on.[55]
The Battle of Tirad Pass took place on December 2, 1899. 52 men of del Pilar's 60-man force were killed, including del Pilar himself. However, the Filipinos under del Pilar held off the Americans long enough for Aguinaldo's party to escape. Aguinaldo, encamped with his party about 10 km south of the pass inCervantes, Ilocos Sur, was apprised of the result of the battle by a rider, and moved on. The party reached Banane settlement on December 7, where Aguinaldo paused to consider plans for the future. On December 16, the party departed forAbra to join forces with GeneralManuel Tinio.[56] The party traveled on foot through a pass at the summit ofMount Polis, and arrived at Ambayuan the next morning. The party pushed on to Banane, pursued closely by American forces. At this point, Aguinaldo's party consisted of one field officer, 11 line officers, and 107 men. The remainder of December 1899 was spent in continuous trek.[57]
The party was at the border of Abra andCagayan provinces on Aguinaldo's 31st birthday on March 23, 1900. The trek from place to place continued until about May 22, 1900, when Aguinaldo established a new headquarters in Tierra Virgen.[58] On August 27, 1900, after American forces landed atAparri, Cagayan, Aguinaldo concluded that Tierra Virgan had become untenable as a headquarters and decided to march toPalanan, Isabela.[58] On December 6, 1900, the party reached Dumasari, and arrived in Palanan the following morning.[59]
Aguinaldo remained in Palanan until his capture there by American forces with the aid of the native scouts on March 23, 1901.[59] Following his capture, Aguinaldo announced allegiance to the United States on April 19, 1901 and manifesting to the Philippine people to lay down their weapons, formally ending the First Republic and recognizing thesovereignty of the United States over the Philippines.[a]
Fighting between the Americans and the remnants of thePhilippine Republican Army continued until the surrender of GeneralMiguel Malvar on April 16, 1902.[60]
Executive power was exercised by the President, through his cabinet secretaries. Emilio Aguinaldo, the incumbent president of theRevolutionary Republic initially assumed the presidency upon the promulgation of the constitution, and he was elected in the first election under the new regime. Presidents were to be elected by the legislature to terms of four years and to be eligible for reelection.
In addition to his basic powers, the 1899 Constitution assigned the following duties to the presidency:[7]
The constitution established a Council of Government, or Cabinet, composed of a President and seven Secretaries. The following individuals were appointed to Cabinet positions:[62]
| Office | Name | Term |
|---|---|---|
| President | Emilio Aguinaldo | January 23, 1899 – April 19, 1901 |
| Prime Minister[63][64][65] | Apolinario Mabini | January 2 – May 7, 1899[65] |
| Pedro Paterno | May 7 – November 13, 1899[65][h] | |
| Secretary of Foreign Affairs[63][64] | Apolinario Mabini | October 1, 1898 – May 7, 1899[65] |
| Secretary of the Interior[63][64] | Teodoro Sandico | January 2 – May 7, 1899[65] |
| Secretary of Finance[63][64] | Mariano Trías | January 2 – May 7, 1899[65] |
| Hugo Ilagan | May 7 – November 13, 1899[65][h] | |
| Severino de las Alas | May 7 – November 13, 1899[65][h] | |
| Secretary of War and Marine[63][64] | Baldomero Aguinaldo | July 15, 1898 – May 7, 1899[65] |
| Mariano Trías | May 7 – November 13, 1899[65][h] | |
| Secretary of Justice | Gregorio Araneta | September 2, 1898 – May 7, 1899[65] |
| Secretary of Welfare[63][64][i] | Gracio Gonzaga | January 2 – May 7, 1899[65] |
| Felipe Buencamino | May 7 – November 13, 1899[65][h] | |
| Maximino Paterno | May 7 – November 13, 1899[65][h] | |
| Secretary of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce[63][64] | León María Guerrero | May 7 – November 13, 1899[65][h] |
The following are the executive departments:[66]
Legislative power was exercised by anAssembly of Representatives initially composed by members of theRevolutionary Government and subsequently elected to four year terms and organized in the form and manner determined by law and referred to at various points in the constitution as theNational Assembly. It specified that assembly members would be chosen by election, but left the manner of the election to be later specified by law. The assembly was initially composed of the former members of theMalolos Congress and had powers and responsibilities detailed in Title IV of the constitution.
Municipal and provincial governments under the Republic had quickly reorganized upon Aguinaldo's decrees of June 18 and 20, 1898.[67] Article 82 of the Malolos Constitution specified the principles governing local laws and governance, prescribing the maximum amount of decentralization and limiting the opportunity for intervention in subnational affairs by the central government.
The government claimed jurisdiction over the overseas territory ofPalaos (Modern dayPalau) and theSulu archipelago. Both areas are represented in the Congress by representatives appointed by President Emilio Aguinaldo. Aguinaldo sent a letter to theSultan of Sulu requesting that the islands be part of the First Philippine Republic, but the letter was ignored.[68]
The Provisional Law on the Judiciary was issued on March 7, 1899, in accordance to the provisions of the 1899 Malolos Constitution providing that the Chief Justice shall be chosen by the National Assembly with the concurrence of the president and secretaries of the government. The Chief Justice simultaneously served as a vice-President of the Republic, who would become head of state in an acting capacity until the Assembly voted for a new President. Aguinaldo nominatedApolinario Mabini to be theChief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines on August 23, 1899, but this nomination was rejected by an Assembly hostile to Mabini; the seat was instead given to Gracio Gonzaga.[69][70][71]
The Supreme Court included Gracio Gonzaga serving as president; Juan Arceo and Felix Ferrer as Chamber Presidents; and Deogracias Reyes, Juan Tongco, Pablo Tecson, and Ygnacio Villamor serving asAssociate Justices[72]
One of the important laws passed by the Malolos Congress was the law providing for a national loan to buoy up the national budget in which the Republic was trying to balance. The loan, worth 20 million pesos, was to be paid in 40 years with an annual interest of six percent. The law was decreed by Aguinaldo on November 30, 1898.[67][clarification needed][page needed]
Emilio Aguinaldo ordered the issuance of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100-peso banknotes which were signed by Messrs. Pedro A. Paterno, Telesforo Chuidan and Mariano Limjap to avoid counterfeiting. However, only the 1 and 5-peso banknotes had been printed and circulated to some areas by the end of the short-lived republic.[citation needed]General Emilio Aguinaldo also issued currency backed by the country's natural resources. Two types of two-centavo copper coins were struck at the Malolos arsenal. These were withdrawn from circulation and declared illegal currency after the surrender of General Aguinaldo to the Americans.[73]
When Philippine independence was declared on June 12, 1898, thePhilippine Revolutionary Army was renamed the Philippine Republican Army. Aguinaldo then appointedAntonio Luna as Director or Assistant Secretary of War by September 28, 1898, and the Philippines' first military school, the Academia Militar, was established in Malolos.
When the Republic was inaugurated on January 23, Luna had succeededArtemio Ricarte as the Commanding General of the Republican Army. With such powers at hand, Luna attempted to transform the weak, undisciplined republican army into a disciplined regular army for the service of the Republic.[74]
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[O]n 24 March, Aguinaldo was captured in the mountain region of Palanan, Isabela Province, and on 2 April 1901 he took an oath of allegiance to the United States. On 19 April 1901 he appealed to all Filipinos to accept the sovereignty of the United States. The existence of the revolutionary government came to an end officially when, on 4 July 1901, U.S. Military government ceased to exist in the Philippines.
On 19 April 1901 Aguinaldo issued a farewell proclamation to his people, bringing the republic to an end: ...
Whereas the insurrection against the authority and sovereignty of the United States is now at an end
WHEREAS, Tuesday, April 16, 2002, marks the centennial celebration of the end of the Philippine-American War [and] WHEREAS, the day also marks the day when General Miguel Malvar, a true-blooded Batangueño and the last President of the Philippine Revolutionary Government surrendered to the Americans; ...
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