From top left: TheCastello Estense, Via Giuseppe Mazzini, Braghini-Rossetti Palace, San Giorgio di Ferrara Cathedral, aerial view of the city during its balloon festival, statue to Nicolò III d'Este in Palazzo Municipale, statue to Girolamo Savonarola in Piazza Savonarola.
The first documented settlements in the area of the present-day Province of Ferrara date from the 6th century BC.[5] The ruins of theEtruscan town ofSpina, established along the lagoons at the ancient mouth of thePo river, were lost until modern times, when drainage schemes in theValli di Comacchio marshes in 1922 first officially revealed a necropolis with over 4,000 tombs, evidence of a population centre that in Antiquity must have played a major role.[6]
There is uncertainty among scholars about the proposedRoman origin of the settlement in its current location (Tacitus andBoccaccio refer to a "Forum Alieni"[7]), for little is known of this period,[8] but some archeologic evidence points to the hypothesis that Ferrara could have been originated from two smallByzantine settlements: a cluster of facilities around the Cathedral of St. George, on the right bank of the main branch of the Po, which then ran much closer to the city than today, and acastrum, a fortified complex built on the left bank of the river to defend against the Lombards.[9]
Ferrara appears first in a document of theLombard kingDesiderius of 753 AD, when he captured the town from theExarchate of Ravenna.[10] Later theFranks, after routing the Lombards, presented Ferrara to thePapacy in 754 or 756.[8] In 988 Ferrara was ceded by the Church to theHouse of Canossa, but at the death ofMatilda of Tuscany in 1115 it became afree commune.[9] During the 12th century the history of the town was marked by the wrestling for power between two preeminent families, theGuelph Adelardi and theGhibelline Salinguerra. The powerful ImperialHouse of Este threw their decisive weight behind the Salinguerra and eventually reaped the benefits of victory for themselves.[9] Thus, in 1264Obizzo II d'Este was proclaimed lifelong ruler of Ferrara, taking the additional titles of Lord ofModena in 1288 and ofReggio in 1289. His rule marked the end of the communal period in Ferrara and the beginning of the Este rule, which lasted until 1598.
The architecture of Ferrara greatly benefited from the genius ofBiagio Rossetti, who was requested in 1484 by Ercole I to draft a masterplan for the expansion of the town. The resulting "Erculean Addition" is considered one of the most important examples of Renaissanceurban planning[13] and contributed to the selection of Ferrara as aUNESCO World Heritage Site.
Flora, a Roman goddess, byBartolomeo Veneto has been assumed to represent Lucrezia Borgia.
In spite of having entered its golden age, Ferrara was severely hit by awar againstVenice fought and lost in 1482–84.Alfonso I succeeded to the throne in 1505 and married the notoriousLucrezia Borgia. He again fought Venice in theItalian Wars after joining theLeague of Cambrai. In 1509 he wasexcommunicated byPope Julius II, but was able to overcome the Papal and Spanish armies in 1512 at theBattle of Ravenna. These successes were based on Ferrara's artillery, produced in his own foundry which was the best of its time.[14][15]
Upon his death in 1534, Alfonso I was succeeded by his sonErcole II, whose marriage in 1528 to the second daughter ofLouis XII,Renée of France, brought great prestige to the court of Ferrara. Under his reign, the Duchy remained an affluent country and a cultural powerhouse. However, anearthquake struck the town in 1570, causing the economy to collapse, and when Ercole II's sonAlfonso II died without heirs in 1597, the House of Este lost Ferrara to thePapal States.
Ferrara, a university city second only to Bologna, remained a part of thePapal States for almost 300 years, an era marked by a steady decline; in 1792 the population of the town was only 27,000, less than in the 17th century.[16] In 1805–1814 it was briefly part of theNapoleonic Kingdom of Italy, aclient-state of theFrench Empire. After the 1815Congress of Vienna, Ferrara was given back to the Pope, now guaranteed by theEmpire of Austria. Abastion fort was erected in the 1600s byPope Paul V on the site theCastel Tedaldo, an old castle at the south-west angle of the town, this was occupied by anAustrian garrison from 1832 until 1859. The fortress was completely dismantled following thebirth of the Kingdom of Italy and the bricks were used for new constructions throughout the town.[17]
Downtown Ferrara around 1900
During the last decades of the 1800s and the early 1900s, Ferrara remained a modest trade centre for its large rural hinterland that relied on commercial crops such assugar beet andindustrial hemp. Largeland reclamation works were carried out for decades with the aim to expand the availablearable land and eradicatemalaria from the wetlands along the Po delta.[18] Mass industrialisation came to Ferrara only at the end of the 1930s with the set-up of a chemical plant by the Fascist regime that should have supplied the regime withsynthetic rubber.[19] During theSecond World War Ferrara was repeatedly bombed by Allied warplanes that targeted and destroyed railway links and industrial facilities. After the war, the industrial area inPontelagoscuro was expanded to become a giant petrochemical compound operated byMontecatini and other companies, that at its peak employed 7,000 workers and produced 20% of plastics in Italy.[20] In recent decades, as part of a general trend in Italy and Europe, Ferrara has come to rely more on tertiary and tourism, while the heavy industry, still present in the town, has been largely phased out.
After almost 450 years,another earthquake struck Ferrara in May 2012 causing only limited damage to the historic buildings of the town and no victims.
The town of Ferrara lies on the southern shores of thePo river, about 44 km (27 mi) north-east of the regional capital,Bologna, and 87 km (54 mi) south ofVenice. The territory of the municipality, entirely part of thePadan plain, is overwhelmingly flat, situated on average just 9 metres (30 ft) above sea-level.[4] The proximity to the largest Italian river has been a constant concern in the history of Ferrara, that has been affected by recurrent, disastrous floods, the latest occurring as recently as 1951.[21] TheIdrovia Ferrarese links the river Po from Ferrara to the Adriatic at Porto Garibaldi.
The climate of the Po valley is classified ashumid subtropical (Cfa) under theKöppen climate classification, a type of climate commonly referred to as "warm temperate" that features mild winters and hot summers, heavy rains in spring and autumn but there is also a lot of rain even in the driest month of January for Ferrara.[22]
Climate data for Ferrara (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1879–present)
The legislative body of theItalian communes is theCity Council (Consiglio Comunale), which, in towns having between 100,000 and 250,000 population, is composed by 32 councillors elected every five years with a proportional system, contextually to the mayoral elections. The executive body is the City Committee (Giunta Comunale), composed by 12assessors, that is nominated and presided over by a directly elected mayor. The current mayor of Ferrara isAlan Fabbri of theLega Nord. The urban organisation is governed by theItalian Constitution (art. 114), the Municipal Statute[26] and several laws, notably the Legislative Decree 267/2000 or Unified Text on Local Administration (Testo Unico degli Enti Locali).[27]
The current division of the seats in the city council, after the 2019 local election, is the following:
The imposingEste Castle, sited in the very centre of the town, is iconic of Ferrara. A very largemanor house featuring four massive bastions and a moat, it was erected in 1385 by architectBartolino da Novara with the function to protect the town from external threats and to serve as a fortified residence for the Este family.[28] It was extensively renovated in the 15th and 16th centuries.[28]
The Gothic façade of the Cathedral
TheCathedral of Saint George, designed byWiligelmus and consecrated in 1135, is one of the finest examples ofRomanesque architecture.[29] The duomo has been renovated many times through the centuries, thus its resultingeclectic style is a harmonious combination of the Romanesque central structure and portal, the Gothic upper part of the façade and the Renaissancecampanile.[9] The sculptures of the main portal are attributed toNicholaus [it]. The upper part of the main façade, with arcades of pointed arches, dates from the 13th century. The recumbent marble lions guarding the portals are copies of the originals, now in the cathedral's museum. An elaborated 13th-century relief depicting theLast Judgement is found in the second storey of the porch. The interior was restored inbaroque style in 1712.[4] The marblecampanile attributed toLeon Battista Alberti[30] was initiated in 1412 but is still incomplete, missing one projected additional storey and a dome, as it can be observed from numerous historical prints and paintings on the subject.[7]
The 15th-century Town Hall
Near the cathedral and the castle also lies the15th-century city hall, that served as an earlier residence of theEste family, featuring a grandiose marble flight of stairs and two ancient bronze statues of Niccolò III and Borso of Este.[9]The southern district is the town's oldest, crossed by a myriad of narrow alleys that date back to theEarly Middle Ages.Casa Romei [it] is perhaps the best-preserved medieval building in Ferrara. It was the private residence of merchant Giovanni Romei, related by marriage to the Este family, and likely the work of the court architect Pietrobono Brasavola.[31] Thanks to thenuns of the Corpus Domini order, much of the original decorations in the inner rooms have been saved. The house features fresco cycles in the "Sala delle Sibille" ("room of sibyls"), an originalterracotta fireplace bearing the coat of arms of Giovanni Romei in the adjoining Saletta dei Profeti ("room of the prophets"), depicting allegories from the Bible, and in other rooms, some of which were commissioned by cardinalIppolito d'Este, paintings by the school ofCamillo andCesare Filippi (16th century).[9]
The town is still almost totally encircled by 9 kilometres (6 miles) of ancientbrick walls, mostly built between 1492 and 1520.[9] Today the walls, after a careful restoration, make up a large urban park around the town and are a popular destination for joggers and cyclists.
In 2007, there were 135,369 people residing in Ferrara, of whom 46.8% were male and 53.2% were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 12.28% of the population compared to pensioners who number 26.41%. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06% (minors) and 19.94% (pensioners). The average age of Ferrara residents is 49, compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Ferrara grew by 2.28%, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.85%.[32] The current birth rate of Ferrara is 7.02 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births. Ferrara is known as the oldest Italian city with a population over 100,000, as well the city with lowest birth rate.
As of 2006[update], 95.59% of the population was Italian. The largest immigrant group was other European nations withUkraine andAlbania: 2.59% followed by North Africa: 0.51%, and East Asia: 0.39%. The city is predominantlyRoman Catholic, with smallOrthodox Christian adherents. The historical Jewish community is still surviving.
The Jewish community of Ferrara is the only one in Emilia Romagna with a continuous presence from the Middle Ages to the present day. It played an important role when Ferrara enjoyed its greatest splendor in the 15th and 16th century, with the dukeErcole I d'Este. The situation of the Jews deteriorated in 1598, when the Este dynasty moved to Modena and the city came under papal control. The Jewish settlement, located in three streets forming a triangle near the cathedral, became aghetto in 1627. Apart from a few years underNapoleon and during the 1848 revolution, the ghetto lasted untilItalian unification in 1859.
In 1799, the Jewish community saved the city from sacking by troops of theHoly Roman Empire. During the spring of 1799, the city had fallen into the hands of theRepublic of France, which established a small garrison there. On 15 April, Lieutenant Field MarshalJohann von Klenau approached the fortress with a modest mixed force of Austrian cavalry, artillery and infantry augmented by Italian peasant rebels, commanded by Count Antonio Bardaniand and demanded its capitulation. The commander refused. Klenau blockaded the city, leaving a small group of artillery and troops to continue the siege.[34] For the next three days, Klenau patrolled the countryside, capturing the surrounding strategic points ofLagoscuro,Borgoforte and theMirandola fortress. The besieged garrison made several sorties from the Saint Paul's Gate, which were repulsed by the insurgent peasants. The French attempted two rescues of the beleaguered fortress: the first, on 24 April, when a force of 400 Modenese was repulsed at Mirandola and the second, GeneralMontrichard tried to raise the city-blockade by advancing with a force of 4,000. Finally, at the end of the month, a column led byPierre-Augustin Hulin reached and relieved the fortress.[35]
Klenau took possession of the town on 21 May, and garrisoned it with a light battalion. The Jewish residents of Ferrara paid 30,000 ducats to prevent the pillage of the city by Klenau's forces; this was used to pay the wages of Gardani's troops.[36] Although Klenau held the town, the French still possessed the town's fortress. After making the standard request for surrender at 08:00, which was refused, Klenau ordered a barrage from his mortars and howitzers. After twomagazines caught fire, the commandant was summoned again to surrender; there was some delay, but a flag of truce was sent at 21:00, and the capitulation was concluded at 01:00 the next day. Upon taking possession of the fortress, Klenau found 75 new artillery pieces, plus ammunition and six months worth of provisions.[37]
In 1938, Mussolini's fascist government instituted racial laws reintroducing segregation of Jews which lasted until the end of the German occupation. During the Second World War, 96 of Ferrara's 300 Jews were deported to German concentration and death camps; five survived. The Italian Jewish writer,Giorgio Bassani, was from Ferrara. His celebrated book,The Garden of the Finzi-Continis, was published in Italian as Giardino dei Finzi-Contini, 1962, by Giulio Einaudi editore s.p.a. It was made into a film byVittorio de Sica in 1970.
During WWII, the Este Castle, adjacent to the Corso Roma, now known as the Corso Martiri della Libertà, was the site of an infamous massacre in 1943.
On December 13, 2017, the first day ofHanukkah, Italy'sMuseum of Italian Judaism and the Shoah opened on the site of a restored two-story brick prison built in 1912 that counted Jews among its detainees during theFascist period. This is the initial phase of a project—known as MEIS, after its initials in Italian—to be completed in 2021, with additional buildings that will create a major Jewish cultural hub and add exhibits focusing on the Jews in theItalian Renaissance and the Shoah.[38][39]
Ferrara gave birth toGirolamo Savonarola, the famous medievalDominican priest and leader ofFlorence from 1494 until his execution in 1498. He was known for hisbook burning, destruction of what he considered immoral art, and hostility to theRenaissance. He vehemently preached against the moral corruption of much of the clergy at the time, and his main opponent wasPope Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia).
During the time thatRenée of France was Duchess of Ferrara, her court attracted Protestant thinkers such asJohn Calvin andOlympia Fulvia Morata.[40] The court became hostile to Protestant sympathizers after the marriage of Renée's daughter Anna d'Este to the fervently Catholic Duke of Guise.
The Ferrarese musicianGirolamo Frescobaldi was one of the most important composers of keyboard music in the lateRenaissance and earlyBaroque periods. His masterpieceFiori musicali (Musical Flowers) is a collection ofliturgicalorgan music first published in 1635. It became the most famous of Frescobaldi's works and was studied centuries after his death by numerous composers, includingJohann Sebastian Bach.[41][42]Maurizio Moro (15??–16??) an Italian poet of the 16th century best known for madrigals is thought to have been born in Ferrara.
In the third season ofMedici (TV Series),Girolamo Riario's men seize Ferrara, 100 miles from Florence and takes their salt. Based on the actions by Riario,Pope Sixtus IV condemns Riario and accepts Lorenzo's invitation to a peace conference in Bagnolo.[43] The attack by Riario’s men on Ferrara was filmed atCastle of Oliveto inCastelfiorentino, once the residence of the noblePucci family of Florence.[44]
ThePalio of St. George is a medieval-themed horse race held every last Sunday of May. Established in 1279, it is probably the oldest such competition in the world.[45][46] The FerraraBuskers Festival is a non-competitive parade of street musicians from all over the world. At the 2017 edition, more than 1,000 artists from 35 different nations took part in the festival, including dancers, clowns, equilibrists, jugglers and other original performers.[47] Additionally, the town hosts the yearlyFerrara Balloons Festival, a large hot-air balloon show.[48]
The town's football team,SPAL, was established in 1907. In 2017 it was promoted toSerie A, Italy's top-level football league, after a 49-year absence. Its home ground isPaolo Mazza Memorial Stadium, with a capacity of 16,134.[49] The club went intoliquidation at the end of the 2024/2025 season, ans a new club Ars et Labor Ferrara was founded and currently competes in the regionalEccellenza Emilia-Romagna league, the fifth level in Italian football.
Some food items easily found in Ferrara: "coppia" bread,[50] "zia" garlic salami[51] andmuskmelon[52]
The culinary tradition of Ferrara features many typical dishes that can be traced back to theMiddle Ages, and that sometimes reveals the influence of its important Jewish community.
The traditional Christmas first course iscappelletti, large meat filled ravioli served in chicken broth. It is often followed bysalama da sugo, a very big, curedsausage made from a selection of pork meats and spices kneaded with red wine.
Seafood is also an important part of the local tradition, that boast rich fisheries in the Po delta lagoons and Adriatic sea. Pasta withclams and grilled or stewed eel dishes are especially well-known. Popular food items include alsozia garlic salami and the traditionalcoppia bread, protected by the IGP (protected geographical status) label.[53] Not unusual is the typicalkosher salami made of goose meat stuffed in goose neck skin.
Local patisserie include spicypampepato chocolate pie,tenerina, a dark chocolate and butter cake, andzuppa inglese, a chocolate and custard pudding on a bed ofsponge cake soaked inAlchermes. Theclayterroir of the area, analluvial plain created by the river Po, is not ideal for wine; a notable exception is Bosco Eliceo (DOC) wine, made from grapes cultivated on the sandy coast line.[54]
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^Acerbi,The 1799 Campaign in Italy: Klenau and Ott Vanguards and the Coalition’s Left Wing April – June 1799; Klenau's force included a battalion of light infantry, a couple battalions of border infantry, a squadron of theNauendorf Hussars (8th Hussars), and approximately 4,000 armed peasants. For details on Austrian force, see Smith,Ferrara,Data Book, p. 156. Klenau's force also captured 75 guns from the fortress.
^"FERRARA BUSKERS FESTIVAL".Emiliaromagnaturismo.com. Official tourist information site of the Emilia-Romagna Region. Retrieved28 December 2017.
^"Ferrara Balloons Festival 2017".www.ferrarainfo.com. "Ferrara Terra e Acqua", the official website for Ferrara and its province. Retrieved28 December 2017.
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