Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) is aflowering plant species in thecarrot family.[1][2] It is ahardy, perennialherb[3] with yellowflowers and featheryleaves.[4] It is indigenous to the shores of theMediterranean but has become widely naturalized in many parts of the world, especially on dry soils near the sea coast and on riverbanks.
It is a highly flavorful herb used incooking and, along with the similar-tastinganise, is one of the primary ingredients ofabsinthe.Florence fennel orfinocchio (UK:/fɪˈnɒkioʊ/,US:/-ˈnoʊk-/,Italian:[fiˈnɔkkjo]) is a selection with a swollen, bulb-like stem base (sometimes calledbulb fennel) that is used as avegetable.
Foeniculum vulgare is aperennial herb. The stem is hollow, erect, andglaucous green, and it can grow up to 2.1 meters (7 feet) tall.[5] Theleaves grow up to 40 centimeters (16 inches) long; they are finely dissected, with the ultimate segments filiform (threadlike), about 0.5 millimeters (1⁄64 in) wide. Its leaves are similar to those ofdill, but thinner.[5]
Theflowers are produced in terminal compoundumbels 5–17.5 cm (2–7 in) wide,[5] each umbel section having 20–50 tiny yellow flowers on short pedicels. Thefruit is a dryschizocarp from4–10 mm (3⁄16–3⁄8 in) long, half as wide or less, and grooved.[6] Since the seed in the fruit is attached to thepericarp, the whole fruit is often mistakenly called "seed".[citation needed]
Some plants in theApiaceae family are poisonous and often difficult to identify.
Dill,coriander,ajwain, andcaraway are similar-looking herbs but shorter-growing than fennel, reaching only 40–60 cm (16–24 in). Dill has thread-like, feathery leaves and yellow flowers; coriander and caraway have white flowers and finely divided leaves (though not as fine as dill or fennel) and are also shorter-lived (being annual or biennial plants). The superficial similarity in appearance between these seeds may have led to a sharing of names and etymology, as in the case of meridian fennel, a term for caraway[10].
Giant fennel (Ferula communis) is a large, coarse plant with a pungent aroma, which grows wild in the Mediterranean region and is only occasionally grown in gardens elsewhere. Other species of the genusFerula are also called giant fennel, but they are not culinary herbs.
In North America, fennel may be found growing in the same habitat and alongside natives osha (Ligusticum porteri) andLomatium species, useful medicinal relatives in theparsley family.
MostLomatium species have yellow flowers like fennel, but some are white-flowered and resemble poison hemlock.Lomatium is an important historical food plant ofNative Americans known as 'biscuit root'. MostLomatium spp. have finely divided, hairlike leaves; their roots have a delicate rice-like odor, unlike the musty odor of hemlock.Lomatium species prefer dry, rocky soils devoid of organic material.
Fennel is widely cultivated, both in its native range and elsewhere, for its edible, strongly flavored leaves and fruits. Itsaniseed orlicorice flavor[11] comes fromanethole, an aromatic compound also found in anise andstar anise, and its taste and aroma are similar to theirs, though usually not as strong.[12]
Florence fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Azoricum Group;syn.F. vulgare var.azoricum) is acultivar group with inflated leaf bases which form abulb-like structure. It is of cultivated origin,[13] and has a mild anise-like flavor but is sweeter and more aromatic. Florence fennel plants are smaller than the wild type.[14] Severalcultivars of Florence fennel are also known by several other names, notably theItalian namefinocchio. In North American supermarkets, it is often mislabeled as "anise."[15][16]
Foeniculum vulgare 'Purpureum' or 'Nigra', "bronze-leaved" fennel, is widely available as a decorative garden plant.[17]
Fennel has becomenaturalized along roadsides, in pastures, and in other open sites in many regions, including northern Europe, the United States, southernCanada, and much of Asia andAustralia. It propagates well by both root crown and seed and is considered aninvasive species and aweed in Australia[18] and the United States. It can drastically alter the composition and structure of many plant communities, including grasslands, coastal scrub,riparian, and wetland communities. It appears to do this by outcompeting native species for light, nutrients, and water and perhaps by exudingallelopathic substances that inhibit the growth of other plants.[19] In western North America, fennel can be found from the coastal and inlandwildland–urban interface east into hill and mountain areas, excluding desert habitats.[20][21] OnSanta Cruz Island, California for example, fennel has achieved 50 to 90% absolute cover.[19]
Fennel was prized by the ancient Greeks and Romans, who used it as medicine, food, and insect repellent. Fennel tea was believed to give courage to warriors before battle. According to Greek mythology,Prometheus used a giant stalk of fennel to carry fire fromMount Olympus to Earth. EmperorCharlemagne required the cultivation of fennel on all imperial farms.[23]
Florence fennel is one of the three main herbs used in the preparation ofabsinthe, an alcoholic mixture which originated as a medicinal elixir in Europe and became, by the late 19th century, a popular alcoholic drink in France and other countries.[24] Fennel fruit is a common and traditional spice in flavored Scandinavianbrännvin (a loosely defined group of distilled spirits, which includeakvavit).[25][26] Fennel is also featured in the ChineseMateria Medica for its medicinal functions.[27]
A 2016 study foundF. vulgare essential oil to haveinsecticidal properties.[28]
Dried fennel seeds are typically used as a spice in minute quantities. A reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz) of fennel seeds provides 1,440 kilojoules (345 kilocalories) of food energy and is a rich source (20% or more of theDaily Value, DV) ofprotein,dietary fiber,B vitamins and severaldietary minerals, especiallycalcium,iron,magnesium andmanganese, all of which exceed 90% DV. Fennel seeds are 52% carbohydrates (including 40%dietary fiber), 15%fat, 16% protein, and 9% water.
The bulb, foliage, and fruits of the fennel plant are used in many of the culinary traditions of the world. The small flowers of wild fennel (known as fennel "pollen")[32] are the most potent form of fennel, but also the most expensive.[33] Dried fennel fruit is an aromatic, anise-flavoredspice, brown or green when fresh, slowly turning a dull grey as the fruit ages. For cooking, green fruits are optimal.[12] The leaves are delicately flavored and similar in shape to dill. The bulb is a crisp vegetable that can be sautéed, stewed, braised, grilled, roasted or eaten raw.[34] Tender young leaves are used for garnishes, as a salad, to add flavor to salads, to flavor sauces to be served with puddings, and in soups and fish sauce.[35] Both the inflated leaf bases and the tender youngshoots can be eaten likecelery.[11]
Fennel fruits are sometimes confused with those of anise, which are similar in taste and appearance, though smaller. Fennel is also a flavoring in some naturaltoothpastes. The fruits are used in cookery and sweet desserts.[35]
Many cultures inSouth Asia,Afghanistan, andWest Asia use fennel fruits in cooking. In many parts of India, fennel fruits; called saunf, are consumed raw or roasted asmukhwas; an after-meal digestive and breath freshener or candied ascomfit. In Iraq, fennel seeds are used as an ingredient innigella-flavored breads.[36] It is one of the most important spices inKashmiri cuisine andGujarati cooking.[37] In Indian cuisine, whole fennel seeds and fennel powder are used as a spice in various sweet and savory dishes. It is an essential ingredient in theAssamese/Bengali/Oriya spice mixturepanch phoron[38] and in Chinesefive-spice powders. Fennel seeds are also often used as an ingredient inpaan, a breath freshener most popularly consumed in India.[36] In China, fennel stem and leaves are often ingredients in the stuffings ofjiaozi,baozi, orpies, as well in cold dishes as a green vegetable. Fennel fruits are present in well-known mixed spices such as the five-spice powder orthirteen-spice powder [zh].
Fennel leaves are used in some parts of India as leafy green vegetables either by themselves or mixed with other vegetables, cooked to be served and consumed as part of a meal. InSyria andLebanon, the young leaves are used to make a special kind of egg omelette (along with onions and flour) calledijjeh.
Manyegg,fish, and other dishes employ fresh or dried fennel leaves. Florence fennel is a key ingredient in some Italian salads, or it can be braised and served as a warm side dish. It may beblanched ormarinated, or cooked inrisotto.
Fennel fruits are the primary flavor component inItalian sausage. In Spain, the stems of the fennel plant are used in the preparation of pickled eggplants,berenjenas de Almagro. Aherbal tea ortisane can also be made from fennel.
On account of its aromatic properties, fennel fruit forms one of the ingredients of the well-known compound licorice powder.
Sugar-coated and uncoated fennel fruits used as abreath freshener
Indianmukhwas (breath freshener) made of fennel seeds and rock sugar
French cooked fennel stuffed withcod anddill cream
The Greek name for fennel ismarathon (μάραθον) ormarathos (μάραθος),[39] and the place of the famousbattle of Marathon literally means a plain with fennel.[40] The word is first attested inMycenaeanLinear B form asma-ra-tu-wo.[41] InHesiod'sTheogony,Prometheus steals the ember of fire from the gods in a hollow fennel stalk.[42]
In the 15th century, Portuguese settlers onMadeira noticed the abundance of wild fennel and used thePortuguese wordfuncho (fennel) and the suffix-al to form the name of a new town,Funchal.[44]
Above the lower plants, it towers, The Fennel with its yellow flowers; And in an earlier age than ours Was gifted with the wondrous powers Lost vision to restore.
^ab"Foeniculum vulgare Mill".Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2023.Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved22 January 2023.
^Díaz-Maroto, M. C; Díaz-Maroto Hidalgo, I. J; Sánchez-Palomo, E; Pérez-Coello, M. S (2005). "Volatile components and key odorants of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) oil extracts obtained by simultaneous distillation-extraction and supercritical fluid extraction".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.53 (13):5385–9.doi:10.1021/jf050340+.PMID15969523.
^Uusitalo, L; Salmenhaara, M; Isoniemi, M; Garcia-Alvarez, A; Serra-Majem, L; Ribas-Barba, L; Finglas, P; Plumb, J; Tuominen, P; Savela, K (2016). "Intake of selected bioactive compounds from plant food supplements containing fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) among Finnish consumers".Food Chemistry.194:619–25.doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.08.057.PMID26471600.
^"Fennel bulb, raw per 100 g". FoodData Central, US Department of Agriculture. 30 October 2020.Archived from the original on 25 October 2019. Retrieved10 April 2024.
^abLakshmi, Padma (2016).The Encyclopedia of Spices and Herbs: An Essential Guide to the Flavors of the World. HarperCollins. p. 220.ISBN978-0-06-237523-0.
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