According to theAPA Dictionary of Psychology, afeeling is "a self-contained phenomenalexperience"; feelings are "subjective, evaluative, and independent of the sensations, thoughts, or images evoking them".[1] The termfeeling is closely related to, but not the same as,emotion.Feeling may, for instance, refer to theconscioussubjective experience of emotions.[2] The study of subjective experiences is calledphenomenology.Psychotherapy generally involves a therapist helping a client understand, articulate, and learn to effectively regulate the client's own feelings, and ultimately to take responsibility for the client's experience of the world. Feelings are sometimes held to be characteristic of embodiedconsciousness.[3]
The English nounfeelings may generally refer to any degree of subjectivity in perception or sensation. However, feelings often refer to an individual sense of well-being (perhaps of wholeness, safety, or being loved). Feelings have a semantic field extending from the individual and spiritual to the social and political. The wordfeeling may refer to any of a number of psychological characteristics of experience, or even to reflect the entire inner life of the individual (seemood). As self-contained phenomenal experiences, evoked by sensations and perceptions, feelings can strongly influence the character of a person's subjective reality. Feelings can sometimes harbor bias or otherwise distort veridical perception, in particular throughprojection,wishful thinking, among many other such effects.
Feeling may also describe thesenses, such as the physical sensation oftouch.
In psychology and philosophy,feeling is commonly defined as the subjective experience of emotion or sensation. Although the termsfeeling,emotion,affect, andmood are sometimes used interchangeably in everyday language, they have distinct meanings in academic contexts.
Lisa Feldman Barrett argues that affect is most likely innate in mammals (and possibly all vertebrates), whereasemotions are constructedmental representations that emerge from the brain's interpretation ofinteroceptive prediction signals combined with past experience (organized as concepts) and signals from the outside world.[7] In philosophical psychology, particularly in the work ofCarl Jung,feeling is considered one of the four primary functions of consciousness, alongsidethinking,sensation, andintuition. Unlike emotions, which are often reactive, Jung defined feeling as a rational function that evaluates and assigns value.[8]
Feeling also differs from sensation: while sensation refers to raw sensory input (such as touch, heat, orpain), feelings involve evaluative or affectivejudgements about those sensations or experiences. Similarly,moods are typically more diffuse and long-lasting affective states, while feelings tend to be more transient and directly tied to particular events or thoughts. These distinctions are foundational in fields such asaffective science,philosophy of mind, andcognitive psychology, where the termfeeling plays a central role in understandingconsciousness, subjectivity, and emotional life.[9]
NeuroscientistAntonio Damasio distinguishes between emotions and feelings: Emotions are mental images (i.e. representing either internal or external states of reality) and the bodily changes accompanying them, whereas feelings are the perception of bodily changes. In other words, emotions contain a subjective element and a third-person observable element, whereas feelings are subjective and private.[10]
The English wordfeeling derives from Old Englishfēlan, meaning "to touch or perceive through the senses", and later acquired the meaning of internal emotional experience. Early philosophical and psychological approaches to feeling laid the foundation for later distinctions betweenaffect,emotion, andcognition. These perspectives treated feeling not merely as emotional fluctuation but as a central dimension of human experience, evaluative thought, and even moral judgement.[11]
The systematic study of affect and feeling (gefühl)[a] in psychology began in the late 19th century with the work ofWilhelm Wundt, often considered the founder of experimental psychology. Wundt proposed that affective experience could be described along three dimensions: pleasant–unpleasant, arousing–subduing, and strain–relaxation.[12] These affective dimensions laid the groundwork for later theories of emotional valence and arousal.[11]
A decade later,William James proposed a physiological theory of emotion in which feelings are the perception of bodily changes caused by external stimuli. In his classic 1884 essay, he wrote: "we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble", arguing that feeling follows bodily reaction rather than preceding it.[5]
In the early 20th century,Carl Jung developed a typology in which feeling was one of the four fundamental functions of consciousness, alongsidethinking,sensation, andintuition. Unlike emotion, which he considered reactive and affective, Jung defined feeling as a rational function that judges and evaluates rather than perceives or reacts. In this view, feeling can be used to assign value or make decisions, independent of sensory experience.[13]
Meanwhile, in phenomenological philosophy,Max Scheler emphasized that feeling is a unique mode of access to values. Rather than viewing feelings as subjective or irrational, Scheler argued that they are intentional acts that disclose the worth of things—what he called "value-feelings" (wertgefühle).[14] This idea positioned feeling not only as affective but also asepistemological.
Contemporary philosopherMartha Nussbaum has continued the philosophical development of feeling by arguing that emotions are a form of evaluative judgement. Drawing from classical philosophy, she suggests that emotions are not opposed to rationality but are instead shaped by beliefs about what is valuable and significant.[15] In her account, feelings are deeply intertwined with ethical reasoning and human flourishing.
Conceptions of feeling vary widely across cultures and philosophical traditions. In many non-Western frameworks, feeling is not merely a passive or internal state, but a central mode of perceiving, valuing, and engaging with the world.
InBuddhist psychology, particularly in theAbhidharma andMahayana traditions, feelings (Sanskrit:vedanā) are classified into three primary types: pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral. These are not emotions per se, but rather the basic hedonic tone that arises with every moment of experience.[16] The recognition and mindfulness of feeling tones is foundational in theSatipatthana system of meditation, particularly in the practice ofvedanānupassanā—the contemplation of feelings as transient phenomena.[17]
InTibetan Buddhist systems, these basic feeling tones are further elaborated into a structured typology known as the51 mental factors, which include both innate and cultivated emotional and cognitive states. Feeling in this context is interwoven with attentional processes, ethical evaluation, and the potential forinsight. These frameworks regard feeling as a dynamic event in the continuum of mind, with implications for bothenlightenment andsuffering.[18]
Hindu philosophy, particularly in the context ofrasa theory, offers another model in which feelings are treated not as inner states alone but asaesthetic-emotional essences (rasa) that are evoked and shared through performance, poetry, and religious experience. Classical Indian aesthetics identifies nine primaryrasas, such as love (śṛṅgāra), sorrow (karuṇa), and wonder (adbhuta), each associated with a specific emotional flavor that is both individually felt and socially mediated.[19]
A number of experiments have been conducted in the study of social and psychological affective preferences (i.e., what people like or dislike). Specific research has been done onpreferences,attitudes,impression formation, anddecision-making. This research contrasts findings withrecognition memory (old-new judgments), allowing researchers to demonstrate reliable distinctions between the two. Affect-based judgments andcognitive processes have been examined with noted differences indicated. Some argue affect and cognition are under the control of separate and partially independent systems that can influence each other in a variety of ways.[20] Both affect and cognition may constitute independent sources of effects within systems of information processing. Others suggest emotion is a result of an anticipated, experienced, or imagined outcome of an adaptational transaction between organism and environment, therefore cognitive appraisal processes are keys to the development and expression of an emotion.[21]
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Sensation occurs when sense organs collect variousstimuli (such as a sound or smell) fortransduction, meaning transformation into a form that can be understood by the nervous system.
A gut feeling, or gut reaction, is a visceral emotional reaction to something. It may be negative, such as a feeling of uneasiness, or positive, such as a feeling of trust. Gut feelings are generally regarded as not modulated by conscious thought, but sometimes as a feature ofintuition rather thanrationality. The idea that emotions are experienced in the gut has a long historical legacy, and many nineteenth-century doctors considered the origins of mental illness to derive from the intestines.[22]
The phrase "gut feeling" may also be used as a shorthand term for an individual's "common sense" perception of what is considered "the right thing to do", such as helping an injured passerby, avoiding dark alleys and generally acting in accordance with instinctive feelings about a given situation. It can also refer to simple common knowledge phrases which are true no matter when said, such as "Fire is hot", or to ideas that an individual intuitively regards as true (see "truthiness" for examples).
The heart has a collection ofganglia that is called the "intrinsic cardiac nervous system".[23] The feelings of affiliation, love, attachment, anger, hurt are usually associated with the heart, especially the feeling of love.
A need is something required to sustain ahealthy life (e.g.air,water,food). A (need) deficiency causes a clear adverse outcome: a dysfunction or death. Abraham H. Maslow, pointed out that satisfying (i.e., gratification of) a need, is just as important as deprivation (i.e., motivation to satisfy), for it releases the focus of the satisfied need, to otheremergent needs.[24]
Motivation is what explains why people or animals initiate, continue or terminate a certain behavior at a particular time. Motivational states are commonly understood as forces acting within the agent that create a disposition to engage in goal-directed behavior. It is often held that differentmental states compete with each other and that only the strongest state determines behavior.[25]
The way that we see other people express their emotions or feelings determines how we respond. The way an individual responds to a situation is based onfeeling rules. If an individual is uninformed about a situation the way they respond would be in a completely different demeanor than if they were informed about a situation. For example, if a tragic event had occurred and they had knowledge of it, their response would be sympathetic to that situation. If they had no knowledge of the situation, then their response may be indifference. A lack of knowledge or information about an event can shape the way an individual sees things and the way they respond.[26]
Timothy D. Wilson, a psychology professor, tested this theory of the feeling of uncertainty along with his colleague Yoav Bar-Anan, a social psychologist. Wilson and Bar-Anan found that the more uncertain or unclear an individual is about a situation, the more invested they are. Since an individual does not know the background or the ending of a story they are constantly replaying an event in their mind which is causing them to have mixed feelings of happiness, sadness, excitement, and et cetera. If there is any difference between feelings and emotions, the feeling of uncertainty is less sure than the emotion of ambivalence: the former is precarious, the latter is not yet acted upon or decided upon.[27]
The neurologist Robert Burton, writes in his bookOn Being Certain, that feelings of certainty may stem from involuntary mental sensations, much like emotions or perceptual recognition (another example might be thetip of the tongue phenomenon).[28]
Individuals in society want to know every detail about something in hopes to maximize the feeling for that moment, but Wilson found that feeling uncertain can lead to something being more enjoyable because it has a sense of mystery. In fact, the feeling of not knowing can lead them to constantly think and feel about what could have been.[29]
Individuals in society predict that something will give them a certain desired outcome or feeling. Indulging in what one might have thought would've made them happy or excited might only cause a temporary thrill, or it might result in the opposite of what was expected and wanted. Events and experiences are done and relived to satisfy one's feelings.[citation needed]
Details and information about the past are used to make decisions, as past experiences of feelings tend to influence currentdecision-making, how people will feel in the future, and if they want to feel that way again. Gilbert and Wilson conducted a study to show how pleased a person would feel if they purchased flowers for themselves for no specific reason (birthday, anniversary, or promotion etc.) and how long they thought that feeling would last. People who had no experience of purchasing flowers for themselves and those who had experienced buying flowers for themselves were tested. Results showed that those who had purchased flowers in the past for themselves felt happier and that feeling lasted longer for them than for a person who had never experienced purchasing flowers for themselves.[30]
Arlie Russell Hochschild, asociologist, depicted two accounts of emotion. The organismic emotion is the outburst of emotions and feelings. In organismic emotion, emotions/feelings are instantly expressed. Social and other factors do not influence how the emotion is perceived, so these factors have no control on how or if the emotion is suppressed or expressed. In interactive emotion, emotions and feelings are controlled. The individual is constantly considering how to react or what to suppress. In interactive emotion, unlike in organismic emotion, the individual is aware of their decision on how they feel and how they show it.[31]
Erving Goffman, a sociologist and writer, compared how actors withheld their emotions to the everyday individual. Like actors, individuals can control how emotions are expressed, but they cannot control their inner emotions or feelings. Inner feelings can only be suppressed in order to achieve the expression one wants people to see on the outside. Goffman explains that emotions and emotional experience are an ongoing thing that an individual is consciously and actively working through. Individuals want to conform to society with their inner and outer feelings.[31]
Anger,happiness,joy,stress, and excitement are some of the feelings that can be experienced in life. In response to these emotions, our bodies react as well. For example,nervousness can lead to the sensation of having "knots in the stomach" or "butterflies in the stomach".[26]
Negative feelings can lead to harm. When an individual is dealing with an overwhelming amount of stress and problems in their lives, there is the possibility that they might consider self-harm. When one is in a good state of feeling, they never want it to end; conversely, when someone is in a bad state of mind, they want that feeling to disappear. Inflicting harm orpain to oneself is sometimes the answer for many individuals because they want something to keep their mind off the real problem.[32] These individuals cut, stab, and starve themselves in an effort to feel something other than what they currently feel, as they believe the pain to be not as bad as their actual problem. Distraction is not the only reason why many individuals choose to inflict self-harm. Some people inflict self-harm to punish themselves for feeling a certain way.[27] Other psychological factors could be lowself-esteem, the need to be perfect, orsocial anxiety.[32]
^In German psychology, the termgefühl (meaning "feeling") has long been used to refer to subjective emotional experience, and it continues to play a role in German-language affective science and phenomenology.[11]
Hochschild, Arlie Russell (2003) [1983].The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling. University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-93041-4.
Horne, Outi; Csipke, Emese (2009). "From Feeling Too Little and Too Much, to Feeling More and Less? A Nonparadoxical Theory of the Functions of Self-Harm".Qualitative Health Research.19 (5):655–667.doi:10.1177/1049732309334249.PMID19380501.S2CID40361244.(subscription required)
Lewis, Michael; Haviland-Jones, Jeannette M.; Barrett, Lisa Feldman, eds. (2016).Handbook of Emotions (4th ed.). Guilford Press.
Mathias, Manon; Moore, Alison M., eds. (2018).Gut Feeling and Digestive Health in Nineteenth-Century Literature, History and Culture. New York: Palgrave.ISBN978-3-030-01857-3.
Maslow, Abraham H. (1970).Motivation andPpersonality (2 ed.). New York: Harper & Row.ISBN0-06-044241-7.OCLC89585.
Nussbaum, Martha C. (2001).Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions. Cambridge University Press.
Panksepp, Jaak (1998).Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions. Oxford University Press.
Scheler, Max (1973) [1916].Formalism in Ethics and Non-Formal Ethics of Values. Northwestern University Press.
Sharp, Daryl (1987).Personality Types: Jung's Model of Typology. Inner City Books.
Tsoknyi Rinpoche (1998).Carefree Dignity: Discourses on Training in the Nature of Mind. Rangjung Yeshe Publications.
Wood, Stacy L.; Bettman, James R. (2007-07-01). "Predicting Happiness: How Normative Feeling Rules Influence (and Even Reverse) Durability Bias".Journal of Consumer Psychology.17 (3):188–201.doi:10.1016/S1057-7408(07)70028-1.
Wundt, Wilhelm (1897).Outlines of Psychology. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann.
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