Thefauna of Scotland is generally typical of the northwestEuropean part of thePalearctic realm, although several of the country's largermammals were hunted toextinction in historic times and human activity has also led to various species of wildlife being introduced.Scotland's diversetemperate environments support 62 species of wild mammals, including a population ofwildcats, important numbers ofgrey andharbour seals and the most northerly colony ofbottlenose dolphins in the world.^[1][2][3]

Many populations ofmoorland birds, including theblack andred grouse, live here, and the country has internationally significantnesting grounds forseabirds such as thenorthern gannet.^[4] Thegolden eagle has become a national icon,^[5] andwhite-tailed eagles andospreys have recentlyre-colonised the land. TheScottish crossbill is the onlyendemicvertebratespecies in the UK.^[6][7][8]

Scotland's seas are among the most biologically productive in the world; it is estimated that the total number of Scottish marine species exceeds 40,000.^[9] TheDarwin Mounds are an important area of deep sea cold water coral reefs discovered in 1998. Inland, nearly 400 genetically distinct populations ofAtlantic salmon live in Scottish rivers.^[10] Of the 42 species of fish found in the country's fresh waters, half have arrived by natural colonisation and half by human introduction.

Only six amphibians and four land reptiles arenative to Scotland, but many species ofinvertebrates live there that are otherwise rare in the United Kingdom (UK).^[11] An estimated 14,000 species of insect, including rare bees and butterflies protected by conservation action plans, inhabit Scotland.Conservation agencies in the UK are concerned that climate change, especially its potential effects on mountainplateaus andmarine life, threaten much of the fauna of Scotland.^[12]

Scotland enjoys diverse temperate environments, incorporatingdeciduous andconiferouswoodlands, andmoorland,montane,estuarine,freshwater,oceanic, andtundralandscapes.^[13] About 14% of Scotland is wooded, much of it in forestry plantations, but before humans cleared the land it supported much largerborealCaledonian andbroad-leaved forests.^[14] Although much reduced, significant remnants of the nativeScots pine woodlands can be found.^[15]Heather moorland andpeatland cover 17% of Scotland.Caithness andSutherland have one of the world's largest and most intact areas ofblanket bog, which supports a distinctive wildlife community.^[16][17] About 75% of Scotland's land is classed as agricultural (including some moorland) while urban areas account for around 3%. The coastline is 11,803 kilometres (7,334 mi) long, and the number of islands with terrestrial vegetation is nearly 800, about 600 of them lying off the west coast. Scotland has more than 90% of the volume and 70% of the total surface area offresh water in the United Kingdom. There are more than 30,000 freshwaterlochs and 6,600 river systems.^[13]

Under the auspices of theEuropean Union'sHabitats Directive, 244 sites in Scotland covering more than 8,750 square kilometres (3,380 mi²) had been accepted by European Commission as Special Areas of Conservation (SAC).^[18][19] Scotland's seas are among the most biologically productive in the world and contain 40,000 or more species. Twenty-four of the SACs are marine sites, and a further nine are coastal with marine and non-marine elements.^[20] These marine elements extend to an area of around 350 square kilometres (140 mi²). TheDarwin Mounds, covering about 100 square kilometres (39 mi²), are being considered as the first offshore SAC.^[19][21]

Scotland was entirely covered in ice during thePleistoceneglaciations.^[22] As the post-glacial weather warmed and the ice retreated, mammals migrated through the landscape. However, the opening of the English Channel (as sea levels rose) prevented further migrations, so mainlandBritain has only two-thirds of the species that reachedScandinavia. TheHebridean islands off Scotland's west coast have only half those of Britain.^[23] Sixty-two species of mammal live wild in and around Scotland including 13 species found in coastal waters.^[3] The populations of a third of the land mammal species are thought to be in decline due to factors including environmental pollution, habitat fragmentation, changes in agricultural practices, particularly overgrazing, and competition from introduced species.^[24] No mammal species are unique to Scotland, although theSt. Kilda field mouse,Apodemus sylvaticus hirtensi, is anendemic subspecies of thewood mouse that reaches twice the size of its mainland cousins,^[25] and theOrkney vole or cuttick,Microtus arvalis orcadensis found only in theOrkney archipelago, is a sub-species of thecommon vole. It may have been introduced by early settlers about 4,000 years ago.^[26] There are various notable domesticatedScottish mammal breeds includingHighland Cattle, theShetland Pony,Eriskay Pony,Soay Sheep andScottish Terrier.

The representation of the weasel family (Mustelidae) in Scotland is typical of Britain as a whole save that thepolecat is absent and that Scotland is the UK's stronghold of thepine marten,^[27] although the purity of the latter breed is threatened by a release ofAmerican martens in northernEngland.^[28] Scotland hosts the only populations of theScottish wildcat (Felis silvestris silvestris) in theBritish Isles with numbers estimated at between 400 and 2,000 animals,^[29] and of thered fox subspeciesVulpes vulpes vulpes, a larger race than the more commonV. v. crucigera and which has two distinct forms.^[30] The wildcat is at risk due to the inadequacy of protective legislation and is now considered at serious risk of extinction.^[31][32] In 2013 it was announced that the island ofCàrna is to provide a sanctuary and breeding station in order to protect the species.^[33] Exterminations of the population of feralAmerican mink, which were brought to Britain for fur farms in the 1950s, have been undertaken under the auspices of the Hebridean Mink Project and the Scottish Mink Initiative, which hopes to create a mink-free zone in a large area stretching fromWester Ross toTayside.^[34][35]

Other than occasionalvagrants, among the seals only thePhocidae, or earless seals, are represented. Two species, thegrey seal and harbour orcommon seal, are present around the coast of Scotland in internationally important numbers. In 2002 the Scottish grey seal population was estimated at 120,600 adult animals, which is around 36% of the world population and more than 90% of the UK's. The Scottish population of the common seal is 29,700, about 90% of the UK and 36% of the European total.^[36]

Of the UK'sred squirrels, 75% are found in Scotland. This species faces threats that include competition from the introducedgrey squirrel, and the 'Scottish Strategy for Red Squirrel Conservation' provides a framework for supporting its long-term conservation.^[37][38] Research in 2007 credited the growing population of pine martens with assisting this programme by preying selectively on the grey squirrels.^[39] Scotland has no population of theedible orhazel dormouse, or of theyellow-necked mouse, and theharvest mouse's range is limited to the southern part of the country. TheSt Kilda mouse andOrkney vole (see above) are endemic, but otherwise population distributions are similar to the rest of mainland Britain.^[40] Colonies ofblack rats are thought to now remain only on the island ofInchcolm in theFirth of Forth, after a successful eradication programme on theShiant Isles.^[41][42]

Mainlandinsectivore populations are generally similar to the rest of Britain. Recent steps byNatureScot, theScottish Executive and theRoyal Society for the Protection of Birds to removeEuropean hedgehogs from theOuter Hebrides,^[43] where their introduction has caused declines in internationally important breeding populations ofwading seabird such asdunlin,ringed plover andredshank, has caused considerable controversy, and hedgehog culls were halted in 2007.^[44][45] The trapped animals are now relocated to the mainland. The programme has reduced this population; only two individuals were caught in 2007.^[46]

Of thelagomorphs only hares and rabbits are represented in Scotland. Themountain hare is the only native member of the hare family and is the dominant species throughout most of upland Scotland. TheEuropean hare andEuropean rabbit are both present, the latter having been brought to Britain by theRomans^[47] but not becoming widespread in Scotland until the 19th century.^[48]

Landseer's painting of ared deerstag,Monarch of the Glen, is one of the most notable images of Victorian Scotland.^[49] The species, a member of the biological orderartiodactyla or "even-toed ungulates", is thought to be approximately 505,000 strong,^[50] although its existence in the pure form is threatened by hybridisation with introducedsika deer. Very much a hill-dwelling species in Scotland (and so typically smaller in stature than its European forest-loving cousins), it is generally replaced byroe deer in lower-lying land.^[51] Although found elsewhere in the UK, no wild populations ofChinese water deer and no or very fewChinese muntjac exist in Scotland. It has isolated populations offeralgoatsCapra hircus and feralsheep (Ovis aries),^[24] such as the herd of 1,000Soay sheep onSt Kilda.^[52] Since 1952 a herd ofreindeer have lived in theCairngorm National Park,^[53][54] the species having become extinct in Scotland after it was recorded as having been hunted inOrkney in the 12th century.^[55]

Only nine of the sixteen or seventeen bat species found elsewhere in Britain are present in Scotland. Widespread species arecommon andsoprano pipistrelles, thebrown long-eared bat,Daubenton's bat andNatterer's bat. Those with a more restricted distribution are thewhiskered bat,noctule,Leisler's bat andNathusius's pipistrelle. Absences include thegreater andlesser horseshoe bat, thegreater mouse-eared bat andBechstein's bat.^[56] No bats reside in the Shetland Islands; the only records there are of migrants or vagrants.^[57]

Twenty-one species ofcetacean have been recorded in Scottish waters within the last 100 years includingCuvier's beaked whale,killer whales,sperm whales,minke whales andcommon,white-beaked andRisso's dolphins.^[58] TheMoray Firth colony of about 100bottlenose dolphins^[1] is the most northerly in the world. As recent dramatic television coverage indicated,^[59] this species preys onharbour porpoises; a third of the porpoise carcasses examined by pathologists from 1992 to 2002 indicated that death resulted from dolphin attacks.^[60] However, conservationists expressed dismay that the UK government decided to allow oil and gas prospecting in the Moray Firth, putting these populations of cetaceans at risk. In response, the government have placedseismic surveys "on hold" during 2009 pending further research.^[61][62] The introducedmarsupial, thered-necked wallaby, is confined to a colony on an island inLoch Lomond.^[63]

During thePleistocene interglacials,arctic animals that are no longer extant occupied Scotland, including thewoolly rhinoceros,mammoth,polar bear,lemming,Arctic fox and the giant deerMegaloceros giganteus.^[48][64] Other mammals that used to inhabit Scotland but became extinct in the wild during historic times include theEurasian lynx, which lived in Britain until 1,500 years ago,^[55] theEuropean brown bear, subspeciesUrsus arctos caledoniensis, which was taken to entertain theRomancircuses^[65] but died out in the 9th or 10th century, and theelk, which lasted until about 1300.^[66] Thewild boar andwild ox or urus died out in the subsequent two centuries, although the former's domesticated cousin, thegrice, lasted until 1930 inShetland.^[67] The last knownwolf was shot onMackintosh land inInverness-shire in 1743,^[68][69] and thewalrus is now only an occasional vagrant.^[70]St Kilda also possessed an endemic subspecies of thehouse mouse,Mus musculus muralis, which was longer, hairier, coloured differently and had a skull shape at variance to the norm. It became extinct in 1938, just eight years after the evacuation of the native St Kildans.^[71]

A joint project of theRoyal Zoological Society of Scotland, theScottish Wildlife Trust andForestry Commission Scotland have successfully re-introduced theEuropean beaver to the wild in Scotland using Norwegian stock. The species was found in theHighlands until the 15th century, and although the thenScottish Government initially rejected the idea, a trial commenced in May 2009 inKnapdale.^{[55][72][73][74][75]} Separately, on Tayside, deliberate releases or escapes have led to up to 250 animals colonising the area. Although it was initially planned to remove these unofficially reintroduced beavers, in March 2012 the Scottish Government reversed the decision to remove beavers from the Tay, pending the outcome of studies into the suitability of re-introduction.^[76] Following receipt of the results of the studies, in November 2016 the Scottish Government announced that beavers could remain permanently, and would be given protected status as a native species within Scotland. Beavers will be allowed to extend their range naturally from Knapdale and along the River Tay, however to aid this process and improve the health and resilience of the population a further 28 beavers will be released in Knapdale between 2017 and 2020.^[77] As of June 2023, the beaver population is thought to consist of approximately 1,500 individuals.^[78]

By means of escapes and/or illegal releases, wild boar (Sus scrofa) have been reintroduced to several areas of Scotland including a wide area ofLochaber and West Inverness-shire, however these populations are predominantly hybrids betweenS. scrofa and the domesticatedpig (S. domesticus). NatureScot thus describes these animals as 'feral pigs'; an estimate of their numbers is not known.^[79] Various other schemes are under consideration. For example, the owner of the Alladale estate north ofInverness has expressed a desire to reintroducewolves as part of a wilderness reserve, the first of its kind in Britain.^[55]

The history of mammals suggests three broad overlapping phases: natural colonisation after the ice age, human-caused extinctions, and introduction by humans of non-native species.^[48] The greater mobility of birds makes such generalisations hard to substantiate in their case. Modern humans have done great damage to bird species, especially the raptors, but natural variations in populations are complex. For example,northern fulmars were present atSkara Brae during theNeolithic period, but inmedieval times their breeding range was restricted toSt Kilda.^[48] Since then they have spread throughout the British Isles.^[80][81]

Most of about 250 species of bird regularly recorded in Britain venture into Scotland, and perhaps up to 300 more occur with varying degrees of rarity. A total of 247 species have been assessed and each placed onto one of three lists, red, amber or green, indicating the level of concern for their future. Forty species are red-listed, 121 are amber-listed and 86 are green-listed.^[82][83]

TheScottish crossbill,Loxia scotica, which inhabits the coniferous forests of theHighlands, is Britain's only endemic bird and, with only 300 breeding pairs, one of Europe's most threatened species.^[84] Its shape, red/green hue and habit of hanging upside down has led to comparisons withparrots.^[85]St Kilda has a unique subspecies ofwren, theSt Kilda wrenTroglodytes troglodytes hirtensis, which has adapted to perching on the rocks and cliffs of this treelessAtlantic island, and consequently has developed larger and stronger feet than the mainland variant. It is also slightly larger, has a longer beak, a drabber though more varied colouring, and a "peculiarly sweet and soft" song. The subspecies was recognised in 1884 and was protected by a specialAct of Parliament in 1904 to prevent its destruction "at the hands of ornithologists, egg-collectors, taxidermists and tourists".^[86]

A 2015 report found that there are now more than 500golden eagle pairs in Scotland.^[87] Thehobby,marsh harrier andMontagu's harrier although found inEngland andWales are generally absent.^[88]

In 1916 an Englishvicar stole the last nativewhite-tailed sea eagle eggs onSkye,^[89] and the last adult was shot inShetland two years later. However, the species was reintroduced to the island ofRùm in 1975. The bird spread successfully to various neighbouring islands, and 30 pairs were established by 2006. Despite fears expressed by local farmers, theRoyal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) are in process of releasing up to 100 young eagles on the east coast in theForth andTay estuaries.^[55][90][91] Thered kite was exterminated in Scotland in 1879, and a reintroduction programme was launched by the RSPB in the 1980s. Although the species has made significant advances, it is estimated that 38% of the 395 birds fledged between 1999 and 2003 were poisoned and a further 9% shot or otherwise killed by humans. The RSPB stated: "it may take a custodial sentence before people engaged with this activity begin to take the matter seriously".^[92]

After an absence of nearly 40 years theosprey successfully re-colonised Scotland in the early 1950s. In 1899 they had bred at the ruined Loch an Eilean castle nearAviemore and atLoch Arkaig until 1908. In 1952 they claimed a new site atLoch Garten.^[93] There are now though to be between 250-300 breeding pairs.^[94]

Other raptor species found in the UK such as thekestrel,hen harrier,goshawk,sparrowhawk,tawny owl, andbarn owl are widely distributed in Scotland, although thelittle owl is confined to the south.^[95][96]Buzzards have displayed a remarkable resilience, having recovered from human persecution and themyxomatosis epidemic of the 1950s, which reduced their food supply. Numbers more than trebled between 1978 and 1998.^[97] At the other end of the population scale, a single pair ofsnowy owls bred onFetlar from 1967 to 1975.^[89]

In 2009 it was reported that the Scottish Government have decided to proceed with a controversial plan to relocate sparrowhawks found nearpigeon lofts in Glasgow, Edinburgh, Kilmarnock, Stirling and Dumfries at a cost of £25,000.^[98]

Scotland's seas host almost half of theEuropean Union's breedingseabirds^[99] including about half of the world'snorthern gannets and a third of the world'sManx shearwaters. Four seabird species have more than 95% of their combined British and Irish population in Scotland, while a further fourteen species have more than half of their breeding population in Scottish colonies.^[19]St Kilda, which is aWorld Heritage Site, is a seabird haven of great significance. It has 60,000northern gannets, amounting to 24% of the world population, 49,000 breeding pairs ofLeach's storm petrel, up to 90% of the European population, 136,000 pairs ofpuffin and 67,000northern fulmar pairs, about 30% and 13% of the respective UK totals.^[100] The island ofMingulay also has a large seabird population and is an important breeding ground forrazorbills, with 9,514 pairs, 6.3% of the European population.^[101]

Of all breedingbonxies 60% nest in Scotland, mostly in Orkney and Shetland, even though they did not arrive at all until the 18th century. Scotland is the breeding station for about 90% of the UK'sArctic terns, the majority of which make use of colonies inOrkney andShetland. A similar percentage of the UK'stysties breed on Scottish islands includingUnst,Mingulay andIona.^[102] Scotland also hosts 1,000 pairs ofArctic skua and 21,000 breeding pairs ofshag, 40% of the global population of the species.^[103]

In excess of 130,000 birds inhabitFowlsheughnature reserve inAberdeenshire at the peak of the breeding season, making it one of the largest seabird colonies in Britain. There are significant numbers ofkittiwake, Atlantic puffin, razorbill, fulmar,herring gull andgreat black-backed gull.^[104] TheBass Rock in theFirth of Forth hosts upwards of 40,000 pairs ofnorthern gannets and is the largest single rock gannetry in the world. The bird's scientific nameMorus bassanus, derives from the rock.^[105][106]

Red-listedwestern capercaillie andptarmigan breed in Scotland and are absent elsewhere in the British Isles. The former became extinct in Scotland in 1785 but was successfully reintroduced fromSwedish stock in 1837.^[107][108] There are significant populations of otherGalliformes includingblackcock and the famousred grouse.^[109]Common quail,grey partridge andpheasant are well-distributed, although thered-legged partridge is less so.^[110] A small colony of the introducedgolden pheasant exists in the southwest.^[111]

Among the waders,avocet,stone-curlew,little ringed plover andKentish plover are absent, but most of the 100 or so pairs ofdotterel in the UK spend their summers in Scotland as do all of the breedingEurasian whimbrel,greenshank andred-necked phalarope, (although the latter two species also breed inIreland).^[112][113] In summer the shallow lochs of themachair lands in theUists andBenbecula provide for a remarkable variety of waders and ducks includingshoveler andeider. The rareSlavonian grebe andcommon scoter breed on a small number of lochs in Highland region.^[114]Goldeneye have colonised an area centred around theCairngorms National Park since the 1970s, and about 100 pairs breed there. The majority of the roughly 25,000whooper swans in the British Isles winter in Scotland andIreland.^[115]

About half of the 80,000barnacle geese, which breed inGreenland, arrive onIslay for the winter, with further flocks wintering on other Scottish islands (e.g. Uists, Tiree, Colonsay) and many thousands wintering in Ireland. Tens of thousands ofpink-footed geese use theMontrose Basin as a winter roost in October and November as they do Loch Strathbeg and various lochs and reservoirs in Tayside and the Lothians.^[116] The amber-listedblack andred-throated diver's freshwater breeding strongholds in the British Isles are in the north and west of Scotland.^[117]

Considerable efforts have been taken to conserve the shycorncrake, and summer numbers of this red-listed species have recovered to over 1200 pairs. Thewryneck is now almost extinct in Scotland with one or two birds singing each summer, but not breeding.^[118] Of the Columbidae theturtle dove is largely absent, but in the British Isles therock dove is confined to the north and west coasts of Scotland and Ireland.^[119]

Ravens are typically forest-dwelling birds in much of Europe, but in Scotland they are generally associated with mountains and sea coasts. In 2002 thehooded crow was recognised as a separate species^[120] from thecarrion crow. Scotland and Northern Ireland host all of the approximately 190,000 UK territories of the former.^[121] A recent survey suggest that raven numbers are increasing but thathooded crows had declined by 59% whilecarrion crow numbers were essentially static.^[122] Concentrated on the islands ofIslay andColonsay, about 80 of Britain's 400 pairs ofred-billed chough nest in Scotland.

In addition tocrossbills (see above),crested tits exist as a fragmented population of 2,400 breeding pairs in remnant patches ofCaledonian Forest and in some larger plantations such as the Culbin Forest inMoray.Ring ouzels have declined to around 7,000 pairs, possibly due to disturbance from the growing number of human visitors to their upland habitat. There are fewer than 100 breeding pairs ofsnow bunting, although in winter they are joined by migrants from continental Europe. A nest site nearDumfries is thought to have been in use bydippers since 1881. Scotland has 95% of the British breeding population of red-listedtwite, about 64,000 pairs.^[123] However, a recentRSPB survey found a sudden and dramatic fall in winter numbers from 6,000 in 1998 to only 300 in 2006 in the counties ofCaithness andSutherland.^[124]

Scotland's position on the western seaboard of Europe means that a variety of birds not normally found in the country visit from time to time. These include accidental visits byvagrant birds that have wandered far from their normal habitations.

Fair Isle is an internationally renowned site for the observation of migrant birds. Rarities have includedpasserines such as thethick-billed warbler,white-throated sparrow,yellow-rumped warbler andcollared flycatcher.^[125] More than 345 species of bird have been recorded on this island, which measures only 7.68 square kilometres (2.97 mi²).^[126]

Elsewhere, other rarities reported in 2006 include awhite-billed diver atGairloch, ablack-browed albatross in theWestern Isles, alaughing gull inShetland and abuff-breasted sandpiper atLossiemouth.^[127] Accidentals recorded in earlier years include anAmerican bittern in 1888 and apurple heron in the same year, aBaikal teal in 1958, and ablack stork in 1977.^[128] Birds are also presumed to have escaped from captivity, such as alanner falcon in 1976,Chilean flamingos in 1976 and 1979, ablack-necked swan in 1988, and ared-tailed hawk in 1989.^[129] These records are but a small selection from twocounties in the north-east and give only a flavour of the complexity and diversity of avian life in Scotland.

Thecommon crane andgreat bittern were exterminated by hunters and the draining of marshes in the 18th century.^[68] The lastgreat auk seen in Britain was killed onStac an Armin, a rocky pinnacle in theSt Kilda archipelago in July 1840.^[130]

Of the 42 species of fish found in Scottish fresh waters, only half have arrived by natural colonisation. Native species includeallis shad,brown trout,European eel andriver lamprey. Scottish rivers support one of the largestAtlantic salmon resources in Europe, with nearly 400 rivers supporting genetically distinct populations.^[10] Five fish species are considered 'late arrivals' to Scotland, having colonised by natural means prior to 1790. They are thenorthern pike,roach,stone loach,European perch, andminnow. Rarer native species include the endemicSalvelinus killinensis^[131] and thepowan, the latter found in only two locations and under threat from introducedruffe and theArctic charr. The latter may have been the first fish species to re-enter fresh waters when the last ice age ended, and about 200 populations exist.^[63][132]

Thefreshwater pearl mussel was once abundant enough to support commercial activities,^[133] and Scotland is the remaining European stronghold with about half the global number present. There are populations in more than 50 rivers, mainly in theHighlands, although illegal harvesting has seriously affected their survival.^[134][135]

Scotland's seas, which constitute an area greater than that of the seas around the rest of the UK, are among the most biologically productive in the world. They are home to a third of the world's whale and dolphin species, most of the UK'smaerl, (a collective term for several species of calcified red seaweed, and an important marine habitat),Horsemussel (Modiolus modiolus) andseagrass beds, and distinctive species like the tall sea pen,Funiculina quadrangularis. It is estimated that the total number of Scottish marine species exceeds 40,000.^[9][20] This includes 250 species offish, the most numerous inshore variety beingsaithe,^[48] and deeper water creatures such as thedogfish,porbeagle andblue shark,European eel,sea bass,Atlantic halibut and variousrays. There are four species ofsea turtle, theleatherback,loggerhead,Kemp's ridley andgreen turtle.^[136] Scottish waters contain around 2,500crustacean species and 700molluscs^[20] and in 2012 a bed of 100 millionflame shells was found during a survey ofLoch Alsh.^[137]

TheDarwin Mounds, an important area of cold watercoral reefs discovered in 1988, are about 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) deep in theAtlantic Ocean, about 185 kilometres (115 mi) north-west ofCape Wrath in the north-east corner of theRockall Trough. The area covers approximately 100 square kilometres (39 mi²) and contains hundreds of mounds of about 100 metres (330 ft) in diameter and 5 metres (16 ft) in height, many having a teardrop shaped 'tail' orientated south-west of the mound. This feature may be unique globally. The tops of the mounds have living stands ofLophelia corals and support significant populations of the single-celledSyringammina fragilissima. Fish have been observed in the vicinity but not at higher densities than the background environment. Damage from trawler fishing was visible over about a half of the eastern Darwin Mounds surveyed during summer 2000, and the UK government is taking steps to protect the area.^[138] In 2003 theEuropean Commission provided emergency protection and banned damaging fishing activity in the locality.^[139]

Further action on a much wider scale may be required. According to a recent report "Scotland's marine life could be almost wiped out within 50 years unless tough action is taken to manage the way humans use the seas". Fears were expressed by a consortium of environmental organisations that commercial fish stocks, includingAtlantic cod are suffering from over-fishing, that fish farming, especially for salmon is damaging the aquatic environment, a reduction in coastal marsh habitats is affecting marine bird life, litter in densely populated estuaries such as theFirth of Clyde is affecting all forms of marine life and that the growth in off-shore tourism was deleterious to populations of, for example,basking shark. A call was made for a 'Scottish MarineBill' to co-ordinate and manage human activity at sea and to provide more protected areas such as marinenational parks.^[141] TheMarine (Scotland) Act 2010 was subsequently passed by the Scottish Parliament.

Calyptraea chinensis (L.) is agastropod that has invaded the shores of Scotland and by 1998 had reached nearly as far north as Oban. One living specimen was found atClachan Sound, and earlier records showed findings of gastropod shells.^[142]

Pollution and predation led to the extinction of both species ofvendace from its very restricted range in south-western Scottish freshwaters in 1980. In the 1990s a successful attempt to reintroduceCoregonus vandesius to theLochmaben area began.Coregonus albula remains absent.^{[143][144][145][146]}

Salvelinus inframundus, a rarechar species that could bevulnerable toextinct, has been found inLoch Mealt,Isle of Skye,Scottish Highlands.^[147]

Only six amphibians and four land reptiles arenative to Scotland.^[148] The amphibians include three species ofnewt: thegreat crested, of which fewer than 1,000 individuals survive;^[149] thesmooth, and thepalmate.^[150] The other amphibians are thecommon toad, thenatterjack toad, found in only four locations in the south-west, and thecommon frog. A single alien amphibian is known in Scotland, theAlpine newt, a recent escapee confined to theEdinburgh area.^[63]

The reptiles include theadder and thegrass snake, theslowworm, which is a legless lizard, and thecommon lizard.Smooth snakes, found elsewhere in the UK are absent, and grass snakes are rarely reported.^[151]

Seventy-seven species of land snail^[152] and an estimated 14,000 species of insect live in Scotland, none of them "truly" endemic.^[153] These includePardosa lugubris, a species ofwolf spider first found in the UK in 2000 atAbernethy Forest nature reserve, and theScottish wood ant. These ants, which are the most numerous residents of the Caledonian pine forest, build mounds from the pine cones and needles they find on the forest floor and may inhabit the mounds for decades. A single colony may collect 100,000 insects a day to feed its half million citizens and produce up to 250 kilograms (550 lb) ofhoneydew per season.^[154]

In addition to the Scottish wood ant, several Scottish species of invertebrate exist that are otherwise rare in the UK and important enough to have a specific "Action Plan" to provide protection. These are five species ofant andbee, sixmoths andbutterfly, fiveflies and a single beetle (the reed beetle) and snail (theround-mouthed whorl snail,Vertigo genesii).^[155]Northern colletes is a rare species of bee, the most significant British habitat for which is in theOuter Hebrides, where there are more than ten colonies.^[156] Scotland is also the UK stronghold of theBlaeberry bumblebee, and the Bumblebee Conservation Trust recently created the world's first sanctuary for thisgenus of insects atRSPB Vane Farm Nature Reserve nearLoch Leven.^[157][158] The bumblebeeBombus jonellus var.hebridensis is endemic to the Hebrides.^[159] In 2010, a colony of the beetleMeloe brevicollis was found on the island ofColl. The species is otherwise extinct in Scotland and is also flightless, raising the question of how the colony arrived on the island.^[160] Thenorthern February red stonefly (Brachyptera putata) has recently lost its range elsewhere in Britain and is now it considered to be a Scottish endemic.^[161][162]

Although many species ofbutterfly are in decline in the UK, recent research suggests that some, such as thepearl-bordered fritillary,marsh fritillary andchequered skipper, which are becoming rare in the rest of the UK, are moving north into Scotland in response to climate change.^[163][164] In June 2008 an adultEthmia pyrausta moth was discovered in Easter Ross. This find was only the fifth sighting since its discovery in the UK atLoch Shin in 1853, and the species has gained "almost mythical status" according to Butterfly Conservation Scotland.^[165]

The most well-known invertebrate may be a species of midge (Culicoides impunctatus), a tiny flying gnat that is the scourge of summer visitors and residents alike. Itspredations result in the loss of up to 20% of summer working days in the forestry industry.^[166] Others of significance include thepine weevil, black pine beetle,clytra beetle, and thetimberman, along-horned beetle.^[167] The archaeological site atSkara Brae provided the earliest known record of the human flea,Pulex irritans in Europe.^[153]

The islands ofColonsay andOronsay are home to about 50 colonies of the only native species of honeybee in Britain–Apis mellifera mellifera. The Scottish Government introduced the Bee Keeping (Colonsay and Oronsay) Order 2013 to protect the species from cross-breeding and disease as the species has suffered serious declines on the mainland.^[168]

A variety of exoticcats are rumoured to exist,^[169] including the 'Beast of Buchan'.^[170] The 'Kellas Cat' ofMoray is a jet black, long-legged animal, and is probably the result of a modern wild cat/domestic cathybrid, or amelanistic wild cat. In earlier times it may have spawned the legend of theCat Sidhe or "Fairy Cat".^[171][172] The fabulousLoch Ness Monster, possibly a form of "water horse", has a long history; the first recorded sighting allegedly took place in 565 AD.^[173] More recently, theStronsay Beast was an unidentifiedcryptid washed ashore in the Orkney islands in the 19th century.^[174]

Conservation of the natural environment is well-developed in theUnited Kingdom. The resources of the organisations concerned may be insufficient to the challenge, but the contrast with earlier attitudes about the environment is striking. InVictorian times few animals became extinct in Scotland, but the scale of the slaughter on hunting estates was staggering. Richard Perry records that on asingle estate in theCairngorms between 1837 and 1840 the following "vermin" were exterminated by keepers purely in the interests of preserving thegrouse population:

246 Martens, 198 Wild Cats, 106 Polecats, 67 Badgers, 58 Otters, 475 Ravens, 462 Kestrels, 371 Rough-legged Buzzards, 285 Common Buzzards, 275 Kites, 98 Peregrine Falcons, 92 Hen Harriers, 78 Merlins, 71 Short-eared Owls, 63 Goshawks, 35 Long-eared Owls, 27 Sea Eagles, 18 Ospreys, 15 Golden Eagles, 11 Hobbys, 6 Gyrfalcons, 5 Marsh Harriers, 3 Honey Buzzards,

and for reasons apparently unconnected to grouse shooting, a further

11 Foxes, 301 Stoats and Weasels, 78 House Cats, 1,431 Hooded or Carrion Crow, 3 Barn Owls, 8 Magpies and 7 "Orange-legged Falcons".

Writing in 1947, Perry stated that his "first reaction to this dreadful black-list was that of amazed incredulity. I still find the details incredible. However, they were supplied by the lessee himself."^[175] In several instances these extermination totals are larger than the current resident numbers for the entire country.

It remains to be seen if the destruction wrought by the Victorians continues to be the nadir for the fauna of Scotland. In addition to other difficulties the marine environment faces,climate change is a challenge facing all of Scotland's habitats. Among the birds,ptarmigan,dotterel andsnow bunting in particular may be affected as they depend on high-altitude habitats, and populations are likely to decline if warmer weather brings competitors into their restricted ranges.^[176] Mammals and other vertebrates may fare better, although localised invertebrate populations are at risk. Marine life is already being affected.Planktonic species that prefer cold water are declining and are not able support the crucial food chains on which many seabirds depend.^[177] Further evidence of problems for marine species has been provided by theSt Andrews University Sea Mammal Research Unit. An analysis suggests thatcommon seal populations inOrkney andShetland fell by 40% from 2001 to 2006, prompting the thenScottish Executive to announce the likelihood of a new protective conservation order.^[178]

The complexities involved in conserving Scottish wildlife are highlighted in an RSPB report, noting that pine martens have been found to be a significant predator of capercaillie nests. Both species are protected, providing conservation agencies with a challenging conundrum to address.^[179] In 2012 the Scottish Government published a "Code of Practice on Non-Native Species" to help people understand their responsibilities and provide guidance as to which public body has responsibility for the various habitats involved.^[180]

Various public sector organisations have an important role in the stewardship of the country's fauna.NatureScot is the statutory body responsible for natural heritage management in Scotland. One of its duties is to establishnational nature reserves (NNR)s. Until 2004 there were 73, but a review carried out in that year resulted in a significant number of sites losing their NNR status, and by 2006 there were 55.^[181][182] As of 2018^[update] there are 43.^[183]Forestry and Land Scotland serves as the forestry department of the Scottish Government and is one of the country's largest landowners. The Joint Nature Conservation Committee is the statutory adviser to Government on UK and international nature conservation.

The country has twonational parks.Cairngorms National Park includes the largest area of arctic mountain landscape in the UK. Sites designated as of importance to natural heritage take up 39% of the land area, two-thirds of which are of Europe-wide importance.^[184]Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park includes Britain's largest body of fresh water, the mountains ofBreadalbane and the sea lochs ofArgyll.

Charitable and voluntary organisations also have important roles to play. TheNational Trust for Scotland is the conservation charity that protects and promotes Scotland's natural and cultural heritage. With more than 270,000 members it is the largest conservation charity in Scotland. TheScottish Wildlife Trust is a leading voluntary conservation organisation, working to protect Scotland's natural environment. TheRoyal Zoological Society of Scotland is a learned society and registered charity that maintainsEdinburgh Zoo and theHighland Wildlife Park (a safari park and zoo nearKingussie, which specialises in native fauna). The Society is also involved in various conservation programs around Scotland and the world. TheRoyal Society for the Protection of Birds promotes conservation of birds and other wildlife through the protection and re-creation of habitats. TheJohn Muir Trust is a charity whose main role is as a guardian of wild land and wildlife, through the ownership of land and the promotion of education andconservation. The trust owns and manages estates in locations includingKnoydart andAssynt, and on the isle ofSkye. It has links with theSierra Club in the United States, which also celebrates the legacy ofDunbar-bornJohn Muir.^[185]Trees for Life is a charity that aims to restore a "wild forest" in theNorthwest Highlands andGrampian Mountains.^[186]

• Scottish Natural Heritage
• Forestry Commission ScotlandArchived 17 December 2010 at theWayback Machine
• Joint Nature Conservation Committee
• Scottish Wildlife Trust
• Royal Zoological Society of Scotland
• Scotland's National Nature Reserves
• Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
• Scottish Seabird Centre
• Cairngorms National Park Authority
• Loch Lomond & The Trossachs National Park Authority
• John Muir Trust
• Trees for Life
• Butterfly Conservation Scotland
• Introduction To Britain's Lost Wildwood
• Scottish Wildcat AssociationArchived 17 September 2012 at theWayback Machine

• Fauna of Scotland
• Nature conservation in Scotland
• Natural history of Scotland
• Fauna of Great Britain

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