TheFasti (Latin:Fāstī[ˈfaːstiː],[2] "theCalendar"), sometimes translated asThe Book of Days orOn the Roman Calendar, is a six-bookLatin poem written by theRoman poetOvid and made public in AD 8. Ovid is believed to have left theFasti incomplete when he was exiled toTomis by the emperorAugustus in 8 AD. Written inelegiac couplets and drawing on conventions ofGreek and Latindidactic poetry, theFasti is structured as a series of eye-witness reports and interviews by thefirst-personvates ("poet-prophet" or "bard") withRoman deities, who explain the origins ofRoman holidays and associated customs—often with multipleaetiologies. The poem is a significant, and in some cases unique, source of fact in studies ofreligion in ancient Rome; and the influential anthropologist andritualistJ.G. Frazer translated and annotated the work for theLoeb Classical Library series. Each book covers one month, January through June, of theRoman calendar, and was written several years afterJulius Caesar replaced the old system of Roman time-keeping with what would come to be known as theJulian calendar.
The popularity and reputation of theFasti has fluctuated more than that of any of Ovid's other works. The poem was widely read in the 15th–18th centuries, and influenced a number of mythological paintings in the tradition ofWestern art.[3] However, as scholarCarole E. Newlands has observed, throughout the 20th century "anthropologists and students of Roman religion … found it full of errors, an inadequate and unreliable source for Roman cultic practice and belief. Literary critics have generally regarded theFasti as an artistic failure."[4] In the late 1980s, however, the poem enjoyed a revival of scholarly interest and a subsequent reappraisal; it is now regarded as one of Ovid's major works,[5][6] and has been published in several new English translations. Ovid was exiled from Rome for his subversive treatment of Augustus, yet theFasti continues this treatment—which has led to the emergence of an argument in academia for treating theFasti as a politically weighted work.
Only the six books which concern the first six months of the year are extant. It may be that Ovid never finished it, that the remaining half is simply lost, or that only six books were intended. Ovid apparently worked on the poem while he was in exile at Tomis. TheTristia, a collection of elegiac letters on the poet's exile, mentions theFasti, and that its completion had been interrupted by his banishment from Rome. Ovid also mentions that he had written the entire work, and finished revising six books. However, no ancient source quotes even a fragment from the supposedly six missing books.
TheFasti is dedicated toGermanicus, a high-ranking member of theemperorAugustus'sfamily. These circumstances have led some to speculate that the poem was written on religious,patriotic, andantiquarian themes in order to improve Ovid's standing with the rulers of Rome and secure his release from exile.
The earliest classical calendrical poem which might have inspired Ovid is theWorks and Days ofHesiod, which includes mythological lore, astronomical observations, and an agricultural calendar. For the astronomical sections, Ovid was preceded byAratus'Phaenomena as well as lost poetry on constellations and probablyGermanicus' adaptation of Aratus (Fasti 1.17–27). The most significant influence on Ovid were the Romanfasti, the Roman calendrical lists, which included dates, notices of festivals, ritual prohibitions and proscriptions, anniversaries of important events, and sometimes aetiological material. Ovid often mentions consulting these calendars, such as his reference at 1.11 topictos fastos and his references to the actual annotation marks of the calendar. The most important of these calendars for Ovid were probably theFasti Praenestini, a contemporary calendar constructed and annotated by the grammarianVerrius Flaccus, whose fragments include much ritual material that can be found in Ovid's poem.[7] The concept of putting these calendars into verse however, seems to be a uniquely Ovidian concept.[8]
Besides his use of calendars and astronomical poetry, Ovid's multi-generic, digressive narrative and learned poem depends on the full range of ancient poetry and prose. In this, one of the most important works for Ovid wasCallimachus'Aetia; the use of divine interlocutors, elegiac meter, various generic registers, and a focus on explaining the origins of customs and festivals are all significant features of Callimachus' work. The Fourth Book ofPropertius, who claimed to be the Roman Callimachus, might also be a model since it also deals with aetiologies of Roman customs and myths. His etymologizing implies an interest in Roman antiquarianism, particularly the works ofVarro on etymology and Roman religion. He similarly makes use of much Roman history writing, which must include lost historical poetry as well as the annal tradition (Ovid says in the prologue that one of his sources are ancient annals (annalibus ... priscis (1.7)). In his longer narrative sections, Ovid makes use of tragedy, epic poetry, elegy, and Hellenistic mythological poems. For some episodes, the sources Ovid used are untraceable. On the Roman side, Ovid particularly focuses on and employsVirgil'sAeneid andEclogues, most notably in the long section on Anna in Book 3. As in theMetamorphoses, Ovid's use of Virgil is multifaceted; he often prefers to invert or abbreviate Virgil's episodes. Ovid will regularly deliberately pass over material covered in theAeneid and expand a small section or a neglected episode into an elaborate narrative.[9]
The poem is an extensive treatment on theRoman calendar, orfasti. Each of its separate books discusses one month of the Roman calendar, beginning with January. It contains some briefastronomical notes, but its more significant portions discuss the religious festivals of theRoman religion, the rites performed upon them, and theirmythological explanations. These explanations preserve much mythological and religious lore that would have otherwise been lost.
The first book opens with a prologue which contains a dedication (1–62) of the poem toGermanicus, Ovid'srecusatio, and a description of the poem's theme as the Roman calendar, festivals, and annual astronomical events, followed by a discussion ofRomulus' andNuma's invention of the Roman calendar. The first episode (63–294) is an interview between the poet and the godJanus about the details of his nature as primal creator (Chaos), history, iconography, and festival on the Kalends of January. The second long episode (317–456) describes theAgonalia, the aetiologies of sacrificial animals, the story ofAristaeus, and the story ofLotis andPriapus. The third episode (461–636) for theCarmentalia discusses the exile ofEvander to Latium, the prophecy of his motherCarmentis aboutAeneas,Augustus, andLivia, and the myth ofHercules andCacus, ending with the praise of the family of Augustus. The end of the book talks about the festival ofConcordia (637–650), the movableSementivae with a prayer for agricultural productivity (655–704), and the feast of theAra Pacis (709–724).
Ovid opens book 2 with an etymological derivation of February fromfebrua (instruments of purification) (1–54). He continues relating several shorter narratives, including the stories ofArion and the dolphin (79–118), Augustus' assumption of the titlepater patriae (119-148), the myth ofCallisto (153–192), the fall of theFabii at theBattle of the Cremera (193–242), and the fable of the constellations of the Raven, Snake, and Crater (243–266). The next long section in the book discusses the festival of theLupercalia (267–474). The poet aetiologizes the nakedness of the Luperci with a story of Faunus' sexual humiliation when he tries to rape Hercules dressed asOmphale and the story of Remus' defeat of cattle rustlers. The narrative of the she-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus is also included. Lines 475–532 describe Romulus' transformation intoQuirinus, which is followed by the narrative of Lara in connection to theFeralia (533–616). The final extensive section describing theRegifugium describes the legends associated with the fall of theTarquins,Lucretia's rape and suicide, andBrutus' revenge (685–855).
The third book is dedicated by Ovid toMars, the patron of the month; in connection to the god, the poet narrates the rape ofSilvia, the birth and discovery of Romulus and Remus, and ends with a discussion of March as the former first month of the year (1–166). Next, the poet interviews Mars who tells the story of therape of the Sabine women to explain why women worship him, and of Numa's capture of Jupiter and the gift of the ritual shields, theancilia and the introduction of thesalii (167–398). Next Ovid relates two short narratives, the story of Romulus'asylum and the temple of Jupiter Veiovis (429–458) and Ariadne's complaint of unfaithfulness to Bacchus and subsequent katasterism ofAriadne's crown (459–516). A long section describes the feast ofAnna Perenna on the Ides, focusing on the story of the Vergilian Anna's escape from Carthage and journey to Italy where she becomes the riverNumicius, the legend of Anna's deceit of Mars when he attempted to woo Minerva, and ending with a note on the murder of Caesar (523–710). The end of the month includes the legends of Bacchus' discovery of honey for theLiberalia (713–808), a prayer to Minerva for theQuinquatrus (809–848), and the story ofPhrixus andHelle for theTubilustrium (849–878).
April begins with the appearance of Venus, who chides Ovid for his abandonment of erotic elegy; Ovid goes on to trace the genealogy of the Roman kings and Augustus from Venus and ends with a celebration of Venus as the goddess of creation (1–132). The first long episode of the book is the festival of theMagna Mater, theLudi Megalenses. For this festival Ovid recounts the birth ofRhea's children, the castration ofAttis, the goddess' transfer to Rome, and the story ofClaudia Quinta (179–375). The next narrative, which is the longest and most elaborate in theFasti, describes theCerealia and the rape of Persephone, the wandering of Ceres, and the return of Persephone toOlympus (393–620). The next extended section is regarding the festival of theParilia which includes agricultural prayers, aetiologies of customs, and the story of the founding augury and death of Remus (721–862). The final sections tell the story ofMezentius in connection to theVinalia (863–900) and include an agricultural prayer on theRobigalia (901–942).
This book opens with the presentation by the Muses of three etymologies for the name of the month: the goddess Maiestas, the Roman elders (maiores), andMaia the mother ofMercury (1–110). Ovid is unable to decide on a correct etymology. In the next section the goddessFlora appears and discusses her origin, her help in Juno's conceiving of a child, and the political origin of her games (159–378). The next notable narrative discusses the rituals of theLemuria and the funeral of Remus (419–490). The birth of Orion from the urine (ouron) of the gods comes next (493–544). This is followed by the origin of theTemple of Mars Ultor (545–598), the end of human sacrifice at Rome (603–662), the worship of Mercury (663–692), and the death ofCastor andPollux (693–720).
The sixth book begins with a prologue in which the goddesses Juno and Juventas (Hebe) dispute over which goddess the month is named after (1–100). Ovid goes on to relate the story of the affair of Carna, the goddess of hinges, and Janus, as well as the story of how Proca was defended from murderous owls by Cranae (101–195). The next large narrative is the discussion of iconography and aetiology of theVestalia, the festival of Vesta. The cosmic identification of Vesta with the earth, the story of Priapus' attempted rape, the origin of the altar of Jupiter Pistoris (of the bakers) in the Gallic invasion of Rome, and the rescue of thePalladium by Metellus in a fire at the temple are recounted (249–468). A short astronomical notice precedes the long discussion of theMatralia, in which Ovid explains the origin of the cult ofMater Matuta, who, asIno, journeyed to Italy and was made a goddess (473–569). This is followed by the story of the murder of KingServius Tullius, a lover of Mater Matuta. TheLesser Quinquatrus' legend follows about the exile and return of Roman flute players (649–710). The final notable episodes of the poem are the punishment ofAesculapius (733–762) and the praise ofMarcia by Clio (797–812).
Though Ovid mentions he had written twelve books, no verified ancient text has been discovered with even a quotation from the alleged books for July through December (books 7 to 12).[10] The fate of the last six books is unknown, though some have speculated that they were intentionally destroyed by theNicene Christian Church during thepersecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire.[11] In 1504 the eccentric humanist and classical text collectorConrad Celtes claimed to have discovered the missing books in a German monastery. He wrote a letter about the books to the Venetian publisherAldus Manutius, who insisted on seeing them himself before signing a contract.[12] The purported missing verses had actually been composed by an 11th-century monk, were known to theEmpire of Nicaea and had allegedly informed a popular harvest festival under the reign ofJohn III Doukas Vatatzes, but even so, many contemporaries of Celtes believed him, and classical scholars continued to write about the existence of the missing books until well into the 17th century.[13]
While Carole E. Newlands wrote in 1995 that the poem had suffered by comparison with other works of Ovid,[14]Fasti has since come to be "widely acclaimed as the final masterwork of the poet from Sulmo".[15] One of the chief concerns that has occupied readers of the poem is its political message and its relationship with the Augustan household. The work contains much material on Augustus, his relatives, and the imperial cult, as signalled in the preface by his address to Germanicus that explains that he will find "festivals pertaining to your house; often the names of your father and grandfather will meet you on the page" (1.9–10).
A current trend inFasti scholarship has been towards the reading of Ovid's voice in the poem as subversive and cynical. Carole Newlands has read the poem as particularly subversive of the regime and imperial propaganda; she believes that several passages point to the problem of curtailed free speech and artistic freedom under the empire without an influential patron to protect artists.[16] She points out that Ovid seems to use divine interlocutors and especially divine disagreements to avoid authority and responsibility for the poem's statements, that there is an inherent and destabilizing tension with the presence of traditional Romanmatronae in an elegiac poem (an erotic genre and meter), and that Ovid often uses astronomical notices and undermining narrative juxtapositions as a way of subverting seeminglyencomiastic episodes.
Earlier scholars posited that the imperial festivals are actually the central focus of the poem embedded in an elaborated frame of charming stories which serve to draw attention to the "serious" imperial narratives — a concept which Herbert-Brown argues against while taking a less subversifying position than Newlands. Herbert-Brown argues that Ovid's main consideration is versifying the calendar; although some sections may be subversive, Herbert-Brown believes that for the most part Ovid's poem harmonizes with imperial ideology in an attempt to gain favor with the imperial household from exile. Seemingly problematic passages reflect mythological ambiguities that Ovid is playing with rather than subversion of the imperial family, and his burlesque treatments of religion are part of an established Roman attitude. An architectural framework is posited by Herbert-Brown, who feels that the poem is structured around the great contemporary architectural monuments of Rome.[8]
Other readers have chosen to focus on thepoetics of theFasti rather than political themes. Murgatroyd's work has particularly focused on the cinematic style of Ovid's work, which he shows employs elaborate and often highly subtle devices to create a vivid picture within a confined narrative. Murgatroyd particularly looks at Ovid's relationships with other authors, notably Livy (from whom Ovid is at pains to distinguish his poetic rather than historical enterprise) and Virgil, and traces how Ovid uses their narratives to construct his own identity in relation to his predecessors in a spirit of friendly competition. He has also traced the progression of Ovid's narrator through the divine interviews from a seemingly naïve and somewhat overwhelmed poet to a full-fledgedvates who ends up in command of the narrative process.
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The Fasti public domain audiobook atLibriVoxPoems byOvid | ||
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