Falkland Islands English is thedialect of theEnglish language spoken in theFalkland Islands. It is mainly derived from varieties of English spoken inSouthern England and retains many similarities with dialects from the South. However, it also shares certain features with Southern Hemisphere Englishes, and Falklanders visiting the UK are sometimes mistaken for Australians or New Zealanders. The dialect persists despite many immigrants from theUnited Kingdom in recent years. In rural areas (i.e. anywhere outsideStanley), known as 'Camp' (fromSpanishcampo or 'countryside'),^[1] the Falkland accent tends to be stronger.

In recent years, a substantialSaint Helenian population has arrived, mainly to do low-paid work, and they too have adistinct form of English.

The Falkland Islands, a cluster of 780 islands, that are 300 miles from the eastern coast ofArgentina, had no indigenous population when the British arrived to explore the islands in 1690.^[2] Continuous anglophone settlement of the islands dates only to 1833, when British forces removed 26 Argentinian soldiers from the islands and claimed them for Britain.^[2][3] In 1845, the capital town ofStanley, located on East Falkland, was established.^[4] Argentina also has a claim to the islands, and in 1982,Argentine forces invaded the Falkland Islands. The United Kingdom moved to defend the British control of the islands, with Prime MinisterMargaret Thatcher calling the islanders "of British tradition and stock".^[5] In under three months, nearly a thousand people were killed, and over 2,000 were injured in the war.^[6]

British–Argentinian tension regarding claim to the islands still exists, but the identity of the island overall is tremendously British, as shown when over 99.8% of islanders voted to remain under British sovereignty in a referendum.^[7] This history has implications for the linguistic features of Falkland Islands English, which is similar to British English but distinct in some vocabulary and phonology.

According to linguist Anne Sudbury, Falkland Islands English is, alongside New Zealand English, probably the youngest native speaker variety of English.^[8] The origins of the dialect present an unusual example of what Sudbury terms "pure dialect contact", where, despite the presence of some Scandinavian and Spanish sailors and a possible small influence from Scots Gaelic in the 19th century, the dialect was formed almost exclusively from contact between native speakers of English.^[8][9] There was also a transient presence of South American gauchos from Uruguay and Chile in the 19th century, however, very few of these became permanent residents of the island and their influence was limited to thelexicon of Falklands English, having no noticeable effect on its grammar and phonology.^[8][9]

The geographical origins of the British settlers to the islands, and therefore the dialects of English they spoke, are hard to trace, due to a lack of detailed historical records.^[8] This problem is further complicated by the transient nature of many settlers' stays in the islands; settlers often found the conditions on the islands harsh and returned home, whereas others migrated onwards to Patagonia.^[8] Still more residents were employed as temporary workers on two- to five-year contracts, many of whom chose to return to the UK upon the contract's completion.^[8]

However, the partial records that do exist, tend to suggest that the two areas providing most settlers were theWest Country and theScottish Highlands and Islands.^[8] The principal varieties of English involved in the formation of Falkland Islands English are likely to beWest Country English and other dialects ofSouthern English.^[9] As well as these two varieties, it is probable thatWest Highland English was spoken by settlers, although, despite the fact Gaelic was only spoken on the islands for a generation, the highland settlers may have been Gaelicmonolinguals upon arrival.^[9]

In addition to these non-standard varieties, until land reforms in the 1970s, the wealthier strata of Falklands society, landowners and later farm managers, were typically speakers ofRP or near-RP, as were the government officials present on the islands.^[8] Due to the small population, these individuals were less socially separated from the majority of the population than in other English-speaking regions, and so influenced the emerging variety.^[8]

This dialect contact resulted in a process ofkoineisation, by which speakers of various dialects accommodated to each other by mixing andlevelling their speech to produce a new variety of English.^[8][9] Until 1982, there is evidence that separate accents existed on West and East Falkland, which were themselves different from the accent of Stanley. However, by 2000, Sudbury reports there was no noticeable difference in accent between regions of the islands.^[8]

Falkland Islands English can be differentiated from other varieties of English.^[8] However, it shows considerable variation between speakers and even the same speaker will often realise the same word with several different pronunciations.^[8] Sudbury suggests that this demonstrates that FIE was not yet, as of 2001, a fully focused variety and was still in the second stage of the koineisation process, where a large degree of variability in the dialect can be found.^[8]

Despite this lack of consistency, Falkland Islands English is clearly a variety based onSouthern British English, like the other southern hemisphere varieties of English: Australian English, New Zealand English and South African English.^[8] People from the British Isles frequently identify the Falklands accent as sounding similar to Australasian accents,^[8][2] although in some respects, particularly in the production of the vowel found in the word "mouth", it is closer to the accents of southwestern England.^[10] This difference in the pronunciation of the MOUTH vowel in part reflects the fact that the majority of settlers in Australia and New Zealand came from the southeast rather than the southwest of England.^[10]

One salient feature that FIE shares with Australian English is the prevalence ofHigh rising terminal in statements as well as questions, which is much less common in British English.^[8] In addition to this,h-dropping is rare, the vowel in "nurse" isfronted and rounded, words rhyming with "own" are pronounced with two syllables and theglide in "mouth" and "price" is weakened to nearly amonophthong.^[8] These features, alongside the comparative lack of non-standard grammar, are shared between FIE and the Australasian varieties.^[8]

However, other features differ from the southern hemisphere varieties.^[8] These include a lack ofraising of front vowels a non-open opening vowel in "face" and the absence of adiphthong in words that rhyme with "fleece" and "goose".^[8]

Based on these factors, Andrea Sudbury concludes that FIE is typologically a southern hemisphere variety of English, albeit a somewhat peripheral one.^[8]

The frontmonophthongs in Falklands English are very similar to standard Southern British English. The TRAP vowel is realised as[æ], the DRESS vowel is[ɛ] and KIT is commonly[ɪ].^[8] Although some speakers do occasionally raise these vowels somewhat, they do not approach the degree of raising found in Australia and New Zealand.^[8]

Words in the FOOT and STRUT sets are also broadly similar to Southern British English, being realised as[ʊ] and[ʌ].^[8] However, some speakers use fronted and unrounded variants,[ɨ-ɯ], for the FOOT set, especially in common words likegood andcould.^[8] Sudbury also noted a tendency to front the STRUT vowel to[ɐ], a feature which parallels South African and Australian English.^[8]

Words in the CLOTH and LOT lexical sets are generally pronounced as anopen back rounded vowel, [ɒ].^[8] There are some exceptions to this in the CLOTH set, where words likeoff,often andacross may be raised and lengthened to[ɔ:].^[8] The subset of CLOTH where this occurs matches the lexical items which can be raised and lengthened in Australian and New Zealand English.^[8]

Words in the BATH, START and PALM sets are generally pronounced similarly to Australasian Englishes, as a lengthened unrounded open front vowel[a:]. However, some speakers use use backer versions, sometimes arriving at articulations similar to RP[ɑ:].^[8]

Some words which Southern British English places in the BATH set are occasionally realised with the TRAP vowel by some speakers. These includelast,past,after,half andasked.^[8]

The vowel in the NURSE lexical set can be realised as in standard Southern British English, as[ɜ:], or raised, fronted and lip-rounded to[ø:-œ:].^[3] The latter variant is similar to Australasian varieties, implying that raising, fronting and rounding of NURSE is a common Southern Hemisphere innovation.^[3]

The vowel in FLEECE is realised[i:] as in Southern British English.^[3] Unlike in Australasia, diphthongisation is rare.^[8]

The THOUGHT vowel is pronounced similarly to in most of Britain, as[ɔ:]. Diphthongisation to [ɔə-oɐ], a typical feature in Australia and New Zealand, is very rare.^[3]

The GOOSE vowel/u:/ can be slightly fronted to[ʉ:].

Falklands English has undergone a degree ofdiphthongisation, albeit to a lesser degree than Australasian Englishes.^[3]

One major difference between the English of the Falklands and other Englishes of the southern hemisphere is the onset centralisation of the PRICE vowel/aɪ/, in which PRICE is pronounced[prəɪs] or[prʌɪs].^[11] This appears to be the retention of a conservative pronunciation from West Country English, rather than an innovation.^[3]

The vowel in GOAT may be resemble RP [əʊ], be backed to [ʌʊ] or realised as a backer and closer [ɤʊ].^[8]

Although the NEAR and SQUARE sets are usually pronounced [ɪə] and [eə] respectively, some speakers appear to show a merger of both sets to [eə].^[8]

English in the Falklands isnon-rhotic.^[11] This is consistent with other varieties of English in the southern hemisphere.^[11]

As in Australia, Falklanders will often insert an extraschwa in words ending -OWN and -EWN, adding another syllable to the word. So, in the case of BLOWN, Standard English /bləʊn/ becomes FIE /bləʊən/.^[8]

In the word WITH, the final -th sound might be devoiced so it is pronounced [θ] (as in "thing") rather than [ð] (as in "this").^[8] This is paralleled in Scottish English and the feature is likely attributable to the presence of Scottish immigrants in the Falklands.^[8]

Glottalisation of /t/ is increasingly common in non-word initial contexts.^[8]

Falkland Islands English makes regular use ofhigh rising terminals, where the rising intonation usually found in questions is used in declarative assertions.^[8] This feature is more common among younger speakers and women.^[8]

Alongside other Southern Hemisphere varieties of English, Falkland Island English is comparatively close to standard English in its grammar.^[8][12] However, some non-standard forms are found occasionally among speakers.^[3][12]

Falklanders will sometimes use thesecond person pluralpronounyouse, instead of "you" when referring to more than one interlocutor.^[3][12] This is also found in New Zealand and Australia, alongside other regions influenced byHiberno-English.^[3][12]

The pronounsshe/her are sometimes used with inanimate objects rather than standardit/it.^[12]

In coordinate subjects, the wordsme ormyself will often replace standardI.^[12] So standardgranny and I becomes FIEme and granny ormyself and granny.^[12]

The reflexive pronouns can be regularised both in possessive form and number. Sohimself >hisself andourselves >ourself.^[12]

As in many varieties of English, the first person possessivemy can be replaced with the object pronounme (e.g.I brokeme leg).^[12]

Non-standard uses ofus are also recorded. It can be used as a singular object pronoun where standard English would useme (e.g.I was the only one there, so he hitus!). In addition to this,us can be used as an identifier with a noun phrase (e.g.Us chays remember very well what happened in 1982.)^[12]

Groupplurals are sometimes used, where the plural marker-s is added not only to thehead of the phrase but to the last word. For example, standarda few cans of beer might become FIEa few cans of beers.^[12]

Plural markers are not used after quantifiers with units of measurement (e.g.That cost me seventy pound and it's only 3 gallon).^[12]

Falkland Islanders frequently drop thedefinite article in abbreviations, where it would always be present in British English. This is particularly evident with the phrase "the UK", which in Falkland Island English is almost always produced as simply "UK" (e.g.I had to study in [Ø] UK.)^[12] This feature is also found in ex-pat varieties of English spoken inHong Kong and on theCosta del Sol.^[12]

It is also common to replace the demonstrative "those" with "them" ( e.g.Them Argies got thrown off Goose Green double quick).^[12]

Occasionally, speakers usea rather thanan when the following noun or adjective begins with a vowel. This means standard Englishan eye becomesa eye whereasan old car may be produced asa old car.^[12]

Several non-standard features are found incomparative and superlative structures. Double comparative and superlative forms are sometimes found; for exampleit was more colder andhe was the most strangest man I ever met.^[12] In addition to this, Falkland Islanders sometimes overuse bothsynthetic marking of comparatives (it was expensiver than I thought) andanalytic marking of comparatives (her parents are more old).^[12]

In Falkland Island English, speakers may use -s on the verb to indicate a habitual aspect, for example"they goes wherever they wants".

As in many dialects of English,there is can be followed by the plural.^[12]

A structure withthere is/was + [noun] + [past participle] is used to illustrateresultative contexts.^[12] Examples of this might be"there was a fella shot here during the war" or"there's houses knocked down every other year".

As in Australian English, FIE sometimes generaliseswas to all persons and numbers. This means phrases such as "you was angry" and "there was three johnny rooks" are possible. Although the opposite phenomenon, generalisation ofwere to all persons and numbers (e.g.I were hungry), has been noted, it is exceptionally rare.^[3][12]

Falkland Islanders often produce non-standardpast simple andpast participle forms. This can consist ofregularisation of irregular verbs, generalisation of the past participle form to past simple, generalisation of the past simple to the past participle, and use of an unmarked verb as a past form with some verbs.^[12]

Falkland Islanders frequently use non-standardgot to instead of standardhave got to,have to ormust to express obligation.^[12] This feature is common in Southwestern England and is likely a reflection of the West Country origins of many early settlers.^[12]

Speakers may employdouble negatives andain't can be used as the negative form ofhave andbe.^[12] The was/weren't split is also found, wherewas can be used in all persons of the verb, but weren't is retained for situations where contrast is required.^[12] Speakers often usenever to mark negation in the past simple tense and may generalisedon't to all persons of the verb in the present simple.^[12]

• Speakers may usewhat as a relative pronoun in situations where standard English would usethat,who orwhich. e.g.There's a door what opens onto the street.^[12]

• Defining relative pronouns may be deleted. e.g.There was a fella came here to study the penguins.^[12]

• It is possible to usebut at the end of a phrase in the waythough may be used in standard English. e.g.I was tired, but.^[12]

• Like can be used as a focussing device. e.g.It was chilly in London like, but not how it gets here when it's cold.

The Falkland Islands had no native population prior to European settlement, and so did not develop the strata of loanwords relating to flora and fauna borrowed from indigenous languages which are found in Australian and New Zealand English.^[8]

However, the FalklandsEnglish vernacular has some borrowedSpanish words due to contact with mainland South America and the influence of Spanish-speaking gauchos who worked on the islands.^[8] In addition to this, Falklanders use some vocabulary derived from jargon used by the British Armed forces, as well as sharing some words with southern hemisphere varieties.^[8]

In the corpus of Falklands English, a significant number of Spanish loanwords are detectable. Spanish loanwords are generally "Falklandised", and employ pronunciations that no longer resemble their Rioplatense Spanish origins.^[8] For example,rebenque ("whip") is pronounced in the Falklands as [rəvInki] rather than Spanish [reβenke], andarroyo ("stream") is pronounced as [rəʊʒə] instead of [aroʒo].^[8] The Spanish word "campo", meaning "field" or "countryside", became Falklands English "camp", which is used on the islands to describe areas outside of the capital Port Stanley.^[8] Another Spanish phrase connected to rural life and borrowed into Falklands English ispassar libre, meaning "cattle grid".^[3]

Other loanwords includeinterjections such as 'che', also encountered inRioplatense Spanish, and 'poocha', equivalent to 'wow' or 'damn',^[13] (frompucha, a euphemism forputa or 'whore').

Spanish borrowings are dominant in the local horse-related terminology. For instance, the Islanders use 'alizan', 'colorao', 'negro', 'blanco', 'gotiao', 'picasso', 'sarco', 'rabincana' etc. for certain horse colours and looks, or 'bosal', 'cabresta', 'bastos', 'cinch', 'conjinilla', 'meletas', 'tientas', 'manares' etc. for various items of horse gear.^[14]

"Che" (which may be spelledchay,chey orché) is used more frequently by older people, and serves as an identity marker to show belonging to the Falkland Islands. It can roughly be translated as "mate" or "love" in British English, but can also be an interjection equivalent tohey! orI say!. Its use forms part of a gauchosprachbund that covers southernBrazil,Uruguay, parts ofParaguay, Argentina,Chilean Patagonia and the Falklands. However, its use in Falklands English differs from that of Spanish and Portuguese in that it can be used as a noun or sometimes a name for an animal.^[15]

Unlike the olderEnglish,French andSpanish place names given by mariners, which refer mainly to islands, rocks, bays, coves, and capes (points), the post-1833Spanish names usually identify inland geographical locations and features, reflecting the new practical necessity for orientation, landdelimitation and management in the cattle and sheep farming. Among the typical such names or descriptive and generic parts of names are 'Rincon Grande', 'Ceritos', 'Campito', 'Cantera', 'Terra Motas', 'Malo River', 'Brasse Mar', 'Dos Lomas', 'Torcida Point', 'Pioja Point', 'Estancia', 'Oroqueta', 'Piedra Sola', 'Laguna Seco', 'Manada', etc.^[14] Again, these toponyms are often highly anglicised, for example the place nameTranquilidad, which in Spanish is pronounced [trankilidað̞], is pronounced on the Falklands as [trɪŋkəliːdaː].^[12]

Two notableFalkland Island terms are 'kelper' meaning aFalkland Islander, from thekelp surrounding the islands (sometimes used pejoratively inArgentina),^[16] and 'smoko', for asmoking break^[15] (as in Australia and New Zealand).^[17]

Through the influence of theBritish forces personnel, who have been stationed continuously in the islands since the Argentine invasion, military expressions are commonly used in Falkland Islands English.^[8] An example of this is the termR&R, which is an abbreviation ofRest and Recreation, but among island civilians means "a short break".^[8]

Falkland Islanders use the termJohnny rook to refer to theStriated Caracara,^[18] this probably derives from "johnny penguin" an alternate name from thegentoo penguin.^[19]

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