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Eyalets (Ottoman Turkish:ایالت,pronounced[ejaːˈlet],lit. 'province'), also known asbeylerbeyliks[1] orpashaliks, were the primaryadministrative divisions of theOttoman Empire.
From1453 to the beginning of the nineteenth century the Ottoman local government was loosely structured.[2] The empire was at first divided into states called eyalets, presided over by abeylerbey (title equivalent toduke inTurkish andAmir al Umara inArabic) of three tails (feathers borne on a state officer's ceremonial staff).[2] Thegrand vizier was responsible for nominating all the high officers of state, both in the capital and the states.[2] Between 1861 and 1866, these eyalets were abolished, and the territory was divided for administrative purposes intovilayets (provinces).[2]
The eyalets were subdivided into districts calledlivas or sanjaks,[3] each of which was under the charge of a pasha of one tail, with the title of mira-lira, orsanjak-bey.[4] These provinces were usually called pashaliks by Europeans.[4] The pasha was invested with powers of absolute government within his province, being the chief of both the military and financial departments, as well as police and criminal justice.[4]
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At official functions, the order of precedence wasEgypt,Baghdad,Abyssinia,Buda,Anatolia, "Mera'ish", and theKapudan Pasha in Asia and Buda, Egypt, Abyssinia, Baghdad, andRumelia in Europe, with the remainder arranged according to the chronological order of their conquest.[5]
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The termeyalet is sometimes translatedprovince orgovernorate. Depending on the rank of the governor, they were also sometimes known aspashaliks (governed by apasha),beylerbeyliks (governed by abey orbeylerbey), andkapudanliks (governed by akapudan).
Pashaluk orPashalik (Turkish:paşalık) is the abstract word derived frompasha, denoting the quality, office or jurisdiction of apasha or the territory administered by him. In European sources, the word "pashalic" generally referred to the eyalets.[4]
The term 'eyalet' began to be applied to the largest administrative unit of the Ottoman Empire instead of beglerbegilik from the 1590s onward, and it continued to be used until 1867.[6]
Murad I instituted the great division of the sultanate into two beylerbeyiliks ofRumelia andAnatolia, in circa 1365.[7] With the eastward expansion of Bayezid's realms in the 1390s, a third eyalet,Rûm Eyalet, came into existence, withAmasya its chief town. This became the seat of government of Bayezid's youngest son,Mehmed I, and was to remain a residence of princely governors until the 16th century.[8]
In 1395, Bayezid I executed the lastShishmanid Tsar ofBulgaria, and annexed his realm toRumelia Eyalet. In 1461, Mehmed II expelled the last of theIsfendyarid dynasty fromSinop, awarding him lands thus taxation authority nearBursa in exchange for his hereditary territory. The Isfendyarid principality became a district ofAnatolia Eyalet.[8] In 1468,Karaman Eyalet was established, following the annexation of the formerly independentprincipality of Karaman;Mehmed II appointed his sonMustafa as governor of the new eyalet, with his seat atKonya.[8]
The 16th century saw the greatest increase in the number of eyalets, largely through the conquests ofSelim I andSüleyman I, which created the need to incorporate the new territory into the structure of the Empire, and partly through the reorganisation of existing territory.[8] A list dated 1527 shows eight eyalets, withEgypt,Damascus,Diyarbekir andKurdistan added to the original four. The last eyalet, however, did not survive as an administrative entity. Süleyman's conquests in eastern Turkey, Iraq and Hungary also resulted in the creation of new eyalets.[8]
The formerprincipality of Dulkadir became theDulkadir Eyalet at some time after its annexation in 1522. After the Iranian campaign of 1533–6, the new eyalets ofErzurum,Van,Sharazor andBaghdad guarded the frontier with Iran.[8] In 1541 came the creation ofBudin Eyalet from part of the oldKingdom of Hungary.[8] TheEyalet of the Archipelago was created by Süleyman I especially forHayreddin Barbarossa in 1533, by detaching districts from the shores and islands of the Aegean which had previously been part of the eyalets ofRumelia andAnatolia, and uniting them as an independent eyalet.[8]
In 1580, Bosnia, previously a district of Rumelia, became an eyalet in its own right, presumably in view of its strategically important position on the border with the Habsburgs. Similar considerations led to the creation of theKanije Eyalet from the districts adjoining this border fortress, which had fallen to the Ottomans in 1600. In the same period, the annexation of the Rumelian districts on the lower Danube and the Black Sea coast, and their addition to territories between the Danube and theDniepr along the Black Sea, created theSilistra Eyalet. At the same time, on the south-eastern shore of the Black Sea,Trebizond Eyalet came into being. The purpose of this reorganisation, and especially the creation of the eyalet of Özi was presumably to improve the defences of the Black Sea ports against the Cossacks.[8]
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By 1609, according to the list ofAyn Ali, there were 32 eyalets. Some of these, such as Tripoli, Cyprus or Tunis, were the spoils of conquest. Others, however, were the products of administrative division.[8]
In 1795, the government launched a major reorganization of the provincial administration, with a law decreeing that there would be 28 provinces, each to be governed by a vizer. These wereAdana,Aleppo,Anatolia,Baghdad,Basra,Bosnia,Childir,Crete,Constantinople,Damascus,Diyarbekir,Egypt,Erzurum,Habesh,Karaman,Kars,Dulkadir, theArchipelago,Morea,Mosul,Rakka,Rumelia,Sayda,Sharazor,Silistra,Sivas,Trebizond,Tripoli,Van. In practice, however, central control remained weak, and beylerbeyis continued to rule some provinces, instead of vizers.[9]
The beylerbeyliks where thetimar system was not applied, such asAbyssinia, Algiers, Egypt, Baghdad, Basra andLahsa, were more autonomous than the others. Instead of collecting provincial revenues throughsipahis, the beylerbey transferred fixed annual sums to Constantinople, known as thesalyane.[6]
By 1500, the four central eyalets of the Empire, Rumelia, Anatolia, Rum and Karaman, were under direct rule.Wallachia,Moldavia and theKhanate of the Crimea, territories which Mehmed II had brought under his suzerainty, remained in the control of native dynasties tributary to the Sultan. So, too, did the Kingdom of Hungary after thebattle of Mohács in 1526.[8]
From the mid-14th century until the late 16th century, only one new beylerbeylik (Karaman) was established.
The eyalets that existed before 1609 but disappeared include the following:[10]
| Province Name | Ottoman Turkish Name andTransliteration (Modern Turkish) | Existed for | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abkhazia | Abhazya | ? years (1578–?) | also called Sukhum [Sohumkale] or Georgia [Gürcistan] and includedMingrelia andImeretia as well as modern Abkhazia – nominally annexed but never fully conquered |
| Akhaltsikhe | Ahıska | ? years (1603–?) | either split from or coextensive with Samtskhe |
| Dagestan | Dağıstan | ? years (1578–?) | also called Demirkapı – assigned aserdar [chief] rather than a beylerbeyi |
| Dmanisi | Tumanis | ? years (1584–?) | |
| Ganja | Gence | 16 years (1588–1604) | |
| Gori | Gori | ? years (1588–?) | probably replaced Tiflis after 1586 |
| Győr | Yanık | 04 years (1594–1598) | |
| Ibrim | Ìbrīm | 01 year (1584-1585) | temporary promotion of thesanjak of Ibrim[11] |
| Kakheti | Kaheti | ? years (1578–?) | Kakhetian king was appointed hereditary bey |
| Lazistan | Lazistān | ? years (1574–?) | |
| Lorri | Lori | ? years (1584–?) | |
| Nakhichevan | Nahçivan | 01 year (1603 only) | possibly never separate from Yerevan[10] |
| Poti | Faş | ? years (1579–?) | may have also been another name for Trabzon |
| Sanaa | San'a | 02 years (1567–1569) | temporary division of Yemen |
| Shemakha | Şamahı | 01 year (1583 only) | may have also been another name for Shervan |
| Szigetvár | Zigetvar | 04 years (1596–1600) | later transferred to Kanizsa |
| Shervan | Şirvan | 26 years (1578–1604) | overseen by a serdar [chief] rather than a beylerbeyi |
| Tabriz | Tebriz | 18 years (1585–1603) | |
| Tiflis | Tiflis | 08 years (1578–1586) | probably replaced by Gori after 1586 |
| Wallachia | Eflak | 2 months (September–October 1595) | the rest of the time Wallachia was a separate autonomousprincipality |
| Yerevan | Erivan | 21 years (1583–1604) | sometimes also included Van |
| Zabid | Zebit | 02 years (1567–1569) | temporary division of Yemen |
Conquests ofSelim I andSuleyman I in the 16th century required an increase in administrative units. By the end of the latter half of the century there were as many as 42eyalets, as the beylerbeyliks came to be known. The chart below shows the administrative situation as of 1609.
| Province Name | Ottoman Turkish Name andTransliteration (Modern Turkish) | Existed for | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Habesh | Habeş | 313 years (1554–1867) | Included areas on both sides of theRed Sea. Also called "Mecca and Medina" |
| Adana | آضنهAżana (Adana) | 257 years (1608–1865) | |
| Archipelago | جزایر بحر سفید Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefid | 329 years (1535–1864) | Domain of theKapudan Pasha (Lord Admiral); Also called Denizi or Denizli, later Vilayet of the Archipelago |
| Aleppo | حلبḤaleb (Halep) | 330 years (1534–1864) | |
| Algiers | جزایر غربCezâyîr-i Ġarb (Cezayir Garp, Cezayir) | 313 years (1517–1830) | |
| Anatolia | Anadolu | 448 years (1393–1841) | Second Eyalet |
| Baghdad | بغدادBaġdâd (Bağdat) | 326 years (1535–1861) | Until theTreaty of Zuhab (1639), Ottoman rule was not consolidated. |
| Basra | بصرهBaṣra (Basra) | 324 years (1538–1862) | |
| Bosnia | Bosna | 284 years (1580–1864) | |
| Budin | Budin | 145 years (1541–1686) | |
| Kıbrıs | قبرصḲıbrıṣ (Kıbrıs) | 092 years (1571–1660; 1745–1748) | |
| Diyarbekir | دیار بكرDiyârbekir (Diyarbakır) | 305 years (1541–1846) | |
| Eger | اكرEgir (Eğri) | 065 years (1596–1661) | |
| Egypt | مصرMıṣır (Mısır) | 350 years (1517–1867) | |
| Erzurum | Erzurum | 334 years (1533–1867) | Until the Treaty of Zuhab (1639), Ottoman rule was not consolidated. |
| Al-Hasa | Lahsa | 110 years (1560–1670) | Seldom directly ruled |
| Kefe (Theodosia) | كفه Kefe | 206 years (1568–1774) | |
| Kanizsa | Kanije | 086 years (1600–1686) | |
| Karaman | Karaman | 381 years (1483–1864) | |
| Kars | Kars | 295 years (1580–1875) | Until the Treaty of Zuhab (1639), Ottoman rule was not consolidated. Bounded toErzurum Eyalet in 1875. |
| Dulkadir | Maraş, Dulkadır | 342 years (1522–1864) | |
| Mosul | Musul | 329 years (1535–1864) | Until the Treaty of Zuhab (1639), Ottoman rule was not consolidated. |
| Ar-Raqqah | Rakka | 278 years (1586–1864) | |
| Rumelia | Rumeli | 502 years (1365–1867) | First Eyalet |
| Childir | Çıldır | 267 years (1578–1845) | Also calledMeskheti, later possibly coextensive with Akhaltsikhe (Ahıska) Province. Most of eyalet passed to Russia in 1829. Remained parts of eyalet bounded to Erzurum in 1845. |
| Shahrizor | Şehrizor | 132 years (1554–1686) | Also Shahrizor, Sheherizul, orKirkuk. In 1830, this eyalet bounded toMosul province asKirkuk sanjak. |
| Silistria | Silistre | 271 years (1593–1864) | Later sometimes calledOchakiv (Özi); First beylerbeyi was theCrimeankhan |
| Sivas | Sivas | 466 years (1398–1864) | |
| Syria | شام Şam | 348 years (1517–1865) | |
| Temeşvar | Tımışvar (Temeşvar) | 164 years (1552–1716) | |
| Trebizond,Lazistan | Trabzon | 403 years (1461–1864) | |
| Tripoli (Tripoli-in-the-East) | طرابلس شام Trablus-ı Şam (Trablusşam) | 285 years (1579–1864) | |
| Tripolitania (Tripoli-in-the-West) | طرابلس غرب Trablus-ı Garb (Trablusgarp) | 313 years (1551–1864) | |
| Tunis | Tunus | 340 years (1524–1864) | |
| Van | وان Van | 316 years (1548–1864) | Until the Treaty of Zuhab (1639), Ottoman rule was not consolidated. |
| Yemen | یمن Yemen | 142 years (1517–1636; 1849–1872) |
Sources:
| Province Name | Ottoman Turkish Name andTransliteration (Modern Turkish) | Existed for | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Crete | Girid | 198 years (1669–1867) | |
| Morea | Mora | 181 years (1620–1687) and (1715–1829) | originally part of Aegean Archipelago Province |
| Podolia | Podolya | 27 years (1672–1699) | overseen by severalserdars (marshals) rather than by beylerbeyi (governors) |
| Sidon | Sayda | 181 years (1660–1841) | |
| Uyvar | Uyvar | 22 years (1663–1685) | |
| Varad | Varad | 31 years (1661–1692) |
| Province Name | Ottoman Turkish Name andTransliteration (Modern Turkish) | Existed for | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adrianople | Edirne | 38 years (1826–1864) | |
| Monastir | Manastır | 38 years (1826–1864) | |
| Salonica | Selanik | 38 years (1826–1864) | |
| Aidin | Aydın | 38 years (1826–1864) | |
| Ankara | Ankara | 37 years (1827–1864) | |
| Kastamonu | Kastamonu | 37 years (1827–1864) | |
| Herzegovina | Hersek | 18 years (1833–1851) | |
| Hüdavendigâr | Hüdavendigâr | 26 years (1841–1867) | |
| Karasi | Karesi | 02 years (1845–1847) | |
| Niš | Niş | 18 years (1846–1864) | |
| Kurdistan | Kurdistan | 21 years (1846–1867)[12] | |
| Vidin | Vidin | 18 years (1846–1864) |
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Turkish Language Association defines the wordeyalet as "an administrative division having some kind of administrative independence" and in modern Turkish, the wordeyalet is used widely in the context offederalism, corresponding to the English wordstate. While the wordeyalet is out of use in Turkishpublic administration, replaced long ago byils under a unitary structure, top-level administrative subdivisions of numerousfederal states are called"eyalet" in Turkish, such as the states ofAustralia,Austria,Brazil,Germany,India,Malaysia,Mexico andthe United States, sometimes along with the provinces ofArgentina,Canada andPakistan, deferent to the modern definition of the word. AlbeitChina andIran are legally unitary states, these countries' provinces may also occasionally be referred to aseyalet in Turkish.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) The appendix includes a list of 'government-generals', sanjaks, and their governors.