Thehistory of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent, known asTerra Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the globe. The termAntarctic, referring to the opposite of theArctic Circle, was coined byMarinus of Tyre in the 2nd century AD.
The rounding of theCape of Good Hope andCape Horn in the 15th and 16th centuries proved thatTerra Australis Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land"), if it existed, was a continent in its own right. In 1773,James Cook and his crew crossed theAntarctic Circle for the first time. Although he discovered new islands, he did not sight the continent itself. It is believed that he came as close as 240 km (150 mi) from the mainland.
On 28 January 1820, a Russian expedition led byFabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen andMikhail Lazarev reached 69° 21′ south latitude, 2° 15′ west longitude, and on 2 February, 66° 25′ south latitude, 1° 11′ west longitude, at both of which positions he was stopped by the pack. He then steered eastward, and on 17 February reached 69° 6′ south latitude, and on the 19th, 68° 5′ south latitude, 16° 37′ east longitude. Later, he reached 66° 53′ south latitude, 40° 56′ east longitude, where he thought land must be near, on account of the numbers of birds. Ten months later an American sealer,Nathaniel Palmer, became the first to sight Antarctica on 17 November 1820. The first landing was most likely just over a year later when English-born American CaptainJohn Davis, asealer, set foot on the ice.
Several expeditions attempted to reach theSouth Pole in the early 20th century, during the "Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration". Many resulted in injury and death. NorwegianRoald Amundsen finally reached the Pole on 14 December 1911, following a dramatic race with the BritonRobert Falcon Scott.
Some authors have suggested that a figure inPolynesians oral tradition fromRarotonga,Hui Te Rangiora (also known as 'Ui Te Rangiora) and his crew explored Antarctic waters in the early seventh century on the vesselTe Ivi o Atea.[1] Accounts name the area "Te tai-uka-a-pia", which literally means 'powderedpia', but in some interpretations it may refer to snow or ice due to the lack of a word for these phenomena inPolynesian languages.[2][1][3] However, this interpretation of the original account is disputed byTe Rangi Hīroa (Sir Peter Henry Buck) who lists evidence for his belief that 'later historians embellished the tales by adding details learned from European whalers and teachers'.[4] This interpretation of oral history and the probability of such a voyage have likewise been dismissed more recently byNgāi Tahu scholars, who agree that 'it is very unlikely that Māori or other Polynesian voyaging reached the Antarctic'.[5][6]
Aristotle speculated, "Now since there must be a region bearing the same relation to the southern pole as the place we live in bears to our pole...".[7][8]
It was not untilPrince Henry the Navigator began in 1418 to encourage the penetration of thetorrid zone in the effort to reach India by circumnavigating Africa that European exploration of the southern hemisphere began.[9] In 1473, Portuguese navigatorLopes Gonçalves proved that theequator could be crossed, and cartographers and sailors began to assume the existence of another, temperate continent to the south of the known world.
The doubling of theCape of Good Hope in 1487 byBartolomeu Dias first brought explorers within touch of the Antarctic cold, and proved that there was an ocean separating Africa from any Antarctic land that might exist.[9]
Ferdinand Magellan, who passed through theStraits of Magellan in 1520, assumed that the islands ofTierra del Fuego to the south were an extension of this unknown southern land, and it appeared as such on a map byOrtelius:Terra australis recenter inventa sed nondum plene cognita ("Southern land recently discovered but not yet fully known").[10]
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In 1539, the King of Spain,Charles V, created theGovernorate of Terra Australis[11] granted toPedro Sancho de la Hoz,[16][17] who in 1540 transferred the title to the conquerorPedro de Valdivia[18] and later was incorporated toChile.
European geographers connected the coast of Tierra del Fuego with the coast ofNew Guinea on their globes, and allowing their imaginations to run riot in the vast unknown spaces of the south Atlantic, south Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean, they sketched the outlines of theTerra Australis Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land"), a vast continent stretching in parts into the tropics. The search for this great south land or Third World was a leading motive of explorers in the 16th and the early part of the 17th centuries.[9]
In 1599, according to the account ofJacob Le Maire, theblown off course DutchDirck Gerritsz Pomp observed mountainous land at latitude (64°). If so, these were theSouth Shetland Islands, and possibly the first European sighting of Antarctica (or offshore-lying islands belonging to it). Other accounts, however, do not note this observation, casting doubt on their accuracy. A similar incident happened to the SpaniardGabriel de Castilla claimed to have sighted "snow-covered mountains" beyond the64° S in 1603. Both of these potential discoveries had no consequences. Before the construction of thePanama Canal, the passages around Tierra del Fuego, notorious for their harsh weather, served as the primary route between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Many ships navigating this route reported drifting off course beyond the 60th parallel, yet no land was ever sighted.[citation needed]
Quirós, in 1606, took possession for the king of Spain all of the lands he had discovered in Australia del Espiritu Santo (theNew Hebrides) and those he would discover "even to the Pole".[9]
Francis Drake, like Spanish explorers before him, had speculated that there might be an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego. Indeed, whenSchouten andLe Maire discovered the southern extremity of Tierra del Fuego and named it Cape Horn in 1615, they proved that the Tierra del Fuego archipelago was of small extent and not connected to the southern land.[9]
Finally, in 1642,Tasman showed that evenNew Holland was separated by sea from any continuous southern continent. Voyagers round the Horn frequently met with contrary winds and were driven southward into snowy skies and ice-encumbered seas; but, so far as can be ascertained, none of them before 1770 reached the Antarctic Circle, or knew it, if they did.[9]
TheDutch expedition to Valdivia of 1643 intended to round Cape Horn sailing throughLe Maire Strait but strong winds made it instead drift south and east.[19] Northerly winds pushed the expedition as far south as 61°59 S whereicebergs were abundant before a southerly wind that begun on April 7 allowed the fleet to advance west.[19] The small fleet led byHendrik Brouwer managed to enter the Pacific Ocean sailing south ofIsla de los Estados disproving earlier beliefs that it was part of Terra Australis.[19][20][21]
The visit toSouth Georgia by the English merchantAnthony de la Roché in 1675 was the first ever discovery of land south of theAntarctic Convergence.[22][23] Soon after the voyage cartographers started to depict 'Roché Island', honouring the discoverer.
James Cook was aware of La Roché's discovery when surveying and mapping the island in 1775.[24]
Edmond Halley's voyage inHMSParamour for magnetic investigations in the South Atlantic met the pack ice in52° S in January 1700, but that latitude (he reached 140 mi or 230 km off the north coast ofSouth Georgia) was his farthest south. A determined effort on the part of the French naval officerJean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier to discover the "South Land" – described by a half legendary"sieur de Gonneyville" – resulted in the discovery ofBouvet Island in 54°10′ S, and in the navigation of48° of longitude of ice-cumbered sea nearly in55° S in 1739.[9]
In 1771,Yves Joseph Kerguelen sailed from France with instructions to proceed south fromMauritius in search of "a very large continent." He lighted upon a land in50° S which he called South France, and believed to be the central mass of the southern continent. He was sent out again to complete the exploration of the new land, and found it to be only an inhospitable island which he renamed the Isle of Desolation, but whichwas ultimately named after him.[9]
The obsession of the undiscovered continent culminated in the brain ofAlexander Dalrymple, the brilliant and erratichydrographer who was nominated by theRoyal Society to command theTransit of Venus expedition toTahiti in 1769. The command of the expedition was given by the admiralty to CaptainJames Cook. Sailing in 1772 with theResolution, a vessel of 462 tons under his own command and theAdventure of 336 tons under CaptainTobias Furneaux, Cook first searched in vain forBouvet Island, then sailed for 20 degrees of longitude to the westward inlatitude 58° S, and then 30° eastward for the most part south of60° S, a higher southern latitude than had ever been voluntarily entered before by any vessel. On 17 January 1773 theAntarctic Circle was crossed for the first time in history and the two ships reached67° 15' S by39° 35' E, where their course was stopped by ice.[9]
Cook then turned northward to look forFrench Southern and Antarctic Lands, of the discovery of which he had received news atCape Town, but from the rough determination of his longitude by Kerguelen, Cook reached the assigned latitude 10° too far east and did not see it. He turned south again and was stopped by ice in61° 52′ S by 95° E and continued eastward nearly on the parallel of60° S to147° E. On 16 March, the approaching winter drove him northward for rest to New Zealand and the tropical islands of the Pacific. In November 1773, Cook left New Zealand, having parted company with theAdventure, and reached60° S by177° W, whence he sailed eastward keeping as far south as the floating ice allowed. The Antarctic Circle was crossed on 20 December and Cook remained south of it for three days, being compelled after reaching67° 31′ S to stand north again in135° W.[9]
A long detour to47° 50′ S served to show that there was no land connection between New Zealand andTierra del Fuego. Turning south again, Cook crossed the Antarctic Circle for the third time at109° 30′ W before his progress was once again blocked by ice four days later at71° 10′ S by106° 54′ W. This point, reached on 30 January 1774, was the farthest south attained in the 18th century. With a great detour to the east, almost to the coast of South America, the expedition regained Tahiti for refreshment. In November 1774, Cook started from New Zealand and crossed the South Pacific without sighting land between53° and57° S to Tierra del Fuego; then, passing Cape Horn on 29 December, he rediscoveredRoché Island renaming itIsle of Georgia, and discovered theSouth Sandwich Islands (namedSandwich Land by him), the only ice-clad land he had seen, before crossing the South Atlantic to the Cape of Good Hope between55° and60°. He thereby laid open the way for future Antarctic exploration by exploding the myth of a habitable southern continent. Cook's most southerly discovery of land lay on the temperate side of the60th parallel, and he convinced himself that if land lay farther south it was practically inaccessible and of no economic value.[9]
The first land south of theparallel 60° south latitude was documented by captain of the cargo shipWilliams, EnglishmanWilliam Smith, who sightedLivingston Island in theSouth Shetlands archipelago on 19 February 1819 but did not land on it. Smith was blown off course to the south while en route toValparaiso. On reaching Valparaiso, Smith reported his discovery of the islands and the abundance of seals there, to CaptainWilliam Henry Shirreff, ofHMS Andromache,[25] which had arrived there about 5 September 1818. Smith was unable to visit the islands again while his return to the Atlantic.
In October 1819, Smith revisited the South Shetlands, landing onKing George Island on 16 October and claimed the new territories for Britain. On 24 November,Williams was back at Valparaiso fromMonte Video. At the beginning of the following year, 1820, theRoyal Navy charteredWilliams and dispatched with her with LieutenantEdward Bransfield on board to survey the newly discovered islands and formally claim them for Great Britain, because Smith was a civilian and his October declaration had no legal force.[26]
Before Bransfield's expedition reached its destination,sealer and Smith's navigator from the previous expedition, Joseph Herring, landed onRugged Island.[27] The second confirmed ship present in the South Shetlands at this time was the AmericanHersilia. The Americans learned of the new land from the crew of theEspirito Santo, Joseph Herring's ship, that they met on theFalklands.[28]
On September 2, 1819, the Spanish shipSan Telmo was lost in a storm in the Drake Passage. There were 644 people on board, including soldiers who were supposed to supportSpanish forces in Peru. There is speculation that the ship may have sunk near the South Shetland Islands, and even left survivors there. On theHalf Moon Beach next to theDoctor Guillermo Mann Base stands a plaque commemorating the sinking of theSan Telmo.[29][30]
It is believed that William Smith found the remains ofSan Telmo on Livingston Island,[31][32][33][34] but Smith himself never mentioned it and the information is second-hand. There is also uncertainty about where the wreck was actually discovered. Smith landed on Livingston Island only during his fifth voyage to the archipelago, after the expedition commanded by Bransfield. One possible explanation for this discrepancy is that Smith named a bay on King George Island 'Shirreff Bay,' but on a subsequent expedition, Bransfield did not confirm this name in the official records, as he had already named a location 'Cape Shirreff' on Livingston Island. There are doubts as to whether the modest remains were related toSan Telmo. During the first season at the turn of 1820 and 1821, four sealing ships were wrecked on the islands.[35]
The first generally recognized sighting of the Antarctic continent was made at a point within 32 km (20 mi) of thePrincess Martha Coast on 27 or 28 January 1820. The Russian expedition led byFabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen andMikhail Lazarev, on the shipsVostok andMirny.[36] The discovery was described with the problematic term "matyoroy lyod" (Russian:матёрой лёд) which can be translated as "hard ice".
The route of this expedition was eastward, as far south as the ice conditions permitted. Two more observations were made, and then, because of the approach of winter, they proceeded toSydney. While in Australia, Bellingshausen wrote a report in which he stated that the southern continent probably did not exist, meaning that he did not consider the earlier observations to be a continent. WhenVostok andMirny returned to the Antarctic Circle the following summer, they continued eastward, discoveringPeter I Island andAlexander I Island, although the latter was considered part of theAntarctic Peninsula until 1940. They then sailed north along the Antarctic Peninsula and reached the South Shetland Islands, where on 5 February 1821, nearDeception Island, they encounteredHero, commanded byNathaniel Palmer, previously second mate of theHersilia.
Meanwhile, on 30 January 1820, Edward Bransfield and William Smith sightedTrinity Peninsula, the northernmost point of the Antarctic mainland.
In the years since the discovery of the South Shetland Islands, there have been many sealing expeditions to the area. Most of them have been poorly documented and non-scientific. In 1950s, the notes ofJohn Davis, captain ofCecilia, one of the ships present there, were discovered. Davis described in them the probably first landing on the continent, which was made by his crew on 7 February 1821.[37][38]
Of the sealers, the most creditable for the exploration of the coast was captain ofHero, Nathaniel Palmer. The crew ofHero were the second in history to sight theAntarctic Peninsula, located between 55 and 80 degrees west. Along with English sealerGeorge Powell, Palmer also co-discovered the nearbySouth Orkney Islands archipelago.
In 1823,James Weddell, a British sealer, sailed into what is now known as theWeddell Sea. Weddell found very favorable ice conditions there, which allowed him to set a record for thefurthest south. Since no land was encountered during the entire voyage, Weddell assumed that the ocean extended to the pole and that there was no continent to the south, only an archipelago.
A piece of wood, from theSouth Shetland Islands, was the first fossil ever recorded from Antarctica, obtained during a private United States expedition during 1829–31, commanded by CaptainBenjamin Pendleton.[39][40][41]
As the seal population declined, interest in the region waned. However, the search for new seal colonies led to isolated discoveries, such as the discovery ofEnderby Land byJohn Biscoe in February 1831, discovery ofKemp Land byPeter Kemp in 1833 and discovery ofBalleny Islands byJohn Balleny in 1839.
In the late 1830s, interest in the far South increased again, resulting in the organisation of three national scientific expeditions during that period. At that time it was still unclear whether there was a continent there or just ice-bound islands.
The first to set off in 1837 was aFrench expedition led bynaval officerJules Dumont d'Urville. After reaching the Antarctic Circle,Astrolabe andZélée sailed into the Weddel Sea where they failed to repeat Jemes Weddel's feat. At the turn of February and March 1838 the expedition was already inBransfield Strait, where it had mapped part of the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, which it named the Louis Philippe Land.[42] In early 1840 a French expedition returned to the Antarctic Circle having sailed from Australia. The two ships reached the north-westernmost and highestislet[43][44] of the rocky group ofDumoulin Islands,[45][46] at 500–600 m from the icy coast of theAstrolabe Glacier Tongue of the time, today about 4 km north from the glacier extremity nearCape Géodésie, and hoisted theFrench tricolour.[47] Dumont named the archipelagoPointe Géologie[48][49] and the land beyond,Adélie Land[a] The map of the coast drawn under sail by the hydrographerClément Adrien Vincendon-Dumoulin [fr] is remarkably accurate given the means of the time.[50]
Charles Wilkes, as commander of aUnited States Navyexpedition in 1840,[51] discovered what is now known asWilkes Land, a section of the continent around 120 degrees East.
Both expeditions operated in the same region and time, leading to disputed claims of priority of discovery. Dumont d'Urville reached the Adelie Land, on 21 or 22 January 1840. Wilkes, on the other hand, claimed to have discovered the same area, which he named "Wilkes Land", on 16 January 1840, from a greater distance. The differences in dates and the uncertainties regarding the exact locations of the discoveries led to a rivalry for prestige between France and the United States over who was to be the first to discover the Antarctic continent.
After theNorth magnetic pole was located in 1831, explorers and scientists began looking for theSouth magnetic pole. One of the explorers,James Clark Ross, a British naval officer, identified its approximate location, but was unable to reach it onhis 4 year-expedition from 1839 to 1843. Commanding the British shipsErebus andTerror, he braved the pack ice and approached what is now known as theRoss Ice Shelf, a massive floatingice shelf over 100 feet (30 m) high. His expedition sailed eastward along the southern Antarctic coast discovering mountains which were since named after his ships:Mount Erebus, the most active volcano on Antarctica, andMount Terror.[51]
These explorers, despite their impressive contributions to South Polar exploration, were unable to penetrate the interior of the continent and, rather, formed a broken line of discovered lands along the coastline of Antarctica. Following the expedition south by the shipsErebus andTerror,James Clark Ross (January, 1841) suggested that there were no scientific discoveries, or 'problems', worth exploration in the far South.[52] What followed is what historianH.R. Mill called 'the age of averted interest'[52] and in the following twenty years after Ross' return, there was a general lull internationally in Antarctic exploration.[52]
In the second half of the 19th century, one of the commanders of the research expeditions from around 1840 was considered to be the discoverer of Antarctica. In Europe,Jules Dumont d'Urville was usually considered, while in America,Charles Wilkes. Wilkes's priority was challenged due to his changing the reported date of his first sighting of the continent twice. The first observation of the land by an American expedition took place on 16 January 1840, from the deck of theUSS Peacock and was supposed to involve distant observation ofEld Peak andReynolds Peak along theGeorge V Coast. The prevailing view at the time was that the sighting of January 16 and the sighting of January 19 were fabrications, made after d'Urville announced his own sighting of the continent on the evening 19 January.[b][53]
In the late 19th century,New ZealandanthropologistPercy Smith proposed a theory about aPolynesian explorer namedUi-te-Rangiora, who may have reached Antarctica orsubantarctic islands.[1]
By the early 20th century, efforts began to promoteNathaniel Palmer's 1820 expedition, which sighted the Antarctic Peninsula in November of that year.
At the 1925 the priority ofEdward Bransfield's expedition, which had mapped the South Shetland Islands and sighted the Trinity Peninsula on 30 January 1820, began to be promoted in Britain.
Thefirst Russian Antarctic Expedition remained largely forgotten until 10 February 1949, whenLev Berg, president of theSoviet Geographical Society, presented a report stating that Russian sailors had 'discoveredPeter I Island,Alexander Island,Traversay Islands, and others in 1821.' This raised questions about the Russian andSoviet role in Antarctic exploration and the scientific research surrounding the discovery of the continent. Shortly thereafter, expedition documents were reexamined.[53][54] Based on a letter written byMikhail Lazarev to a friend after the expedition, it was concluded that an ice shelf, which Lazarev described as 'materyi led' (translated as 'hard ice'), was sighted on 28[c] January 1820. However, there is some uncertainty regarding Lazarev's accuracy in recalling the chronology of events.[55]
The first documented landing on the mainland ofEast Antarctica was atVictoria Land by the American sealerMercator Cooper on 26 January 1853.[56]
TheHeroic Age of Antarctic Exploration began at the end of the 19th century and closed withErnest Shackleton'sImperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition in 1917.[57]
During this period the Antarctic continent became the focus of an international effort that resulted in intensive scientific and geographical exploration and in which 17 majorAntarctic expeditions were launched from ten countries.[58]
An important precursor to the Heroic Age of Antarctic exploration was theDundee Antarctic Expedition of 1892-93 in which fourDundeewhaling ships travelled south to the Antarctic in search of whales instead of their usualArctic route. The expedition was accompanied by several naturalists (includingWilliam Speirs Bruce) and an artist,William Gordon Burn Murdoch. The publications (both scientific and popular) and exhibitions that resulted did much to reignite public interest in the Antarctic. The performance of the whaling ships was also crucial in the decision to build theRRSDiscovery in Dundee.[59]
Following on from that expedition, the specific impetus for the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration was a lecture given byDr John Murray entitled "The Renewal of Antarctic Exploration", given to theRoyal Geographical Society in London, 27 November 1893.[60] Murray advocated that research into the Antarctic should be organised to "resolve the outstanding geographical questions still posed in the south".[61] Furthermore, the Royal Geographical Society instated an Antarctic Committee shortly prior to this, in 1887, which successfully encouraged many whalers to explore the Southern regions of the world and laid the groundwork for the lecture given by Murray.[62]
The Norwegian shipAntarctic was put ashore atCape Adare, on 24 January 1895.[63]
In August 1895 the Sixth International Geographical Congress in London passed a general resolution calling on scientific societies throughout the world to promote the cause of Antarctic exploration "in whatever ways seem to them most effective".[64] Such work would "bring additions to almost every branch of science".[64] The Congress had been addressed by the NorwegianCarsten Borchgrevink, who had just returned from a whaling expedition during which he had become one of the first to set foot on the Antarctic mainland.[9] During his address, Borchgrevink outlined plans for a full-scale pioneering Antarctic expedition, to be based atCape Adare.[65][66]
The Heroic Age was inaugurated by anexpedition launched by the Belgian Geographical Society in 1897; Borchgrevink followed a year later with a privately sponsored British expedition.[67] (Some histories consider theDiscovery expedition, which departed in 1901, as the first proper expedition of the Heroic Age.[68])
TheBelgian Antarctic Expedition was led by BelgianAdrian de Gerlache. In 1898, they became the first men to spend winter on Antarctica, when their shipBelgica became trapped in the ice. They became stuck on 28 February 1898, and only managed to get out of the ice on 14 March 1899.
During their forced stay, several men lost their sanity, not only because of the Antarctic winter night and the endured hardship, but also because of the language problems between the different nationalities. This was the first expedition tooverwinter within the Antarctic Circle,[69][70] and they visited theSouth Shetland Islands.[71]
TheSouthern Cross Expedition began in 1898 and lasted for two years.SS Southern Cross was used during the expedition. This was the first expedition to overwinter on the Antarctic mainland (Cape Adare) and was the first to make use of dogs and sledges. It made the first ascent of TheGreat Ice Barrier, (The Great Ice Barrier later became formally known as theRoss Ice Shelf). The expedition set aFarthest South record at 78°30'S. It also calculated the location of theSouth Magnetic Pole.[72][73]
TheDiscovery Expedition was then launched, from 1901 to 1904 and was led byRobert Falcon Scott. It made the first ascent of the Western Mountains inVictoria Land, and discovered the polar plateau. Its southern journey set a new Farthest South record, 82°17'S. Many other geographical features were discovered, mapped and named. This was the first of several expeditions based inMcMurdo Sound.[74][75][76]
A year later, theScottish National Antarctic Expedition was launched, headed byWilliam Speirs Bruce. 'Ormond House' was established as ameteorological observatory onLaurie Island in theSouth Orkneys and was the first permanent base in Antarctica. TheWeddell Sea was penetrated to 74°01'S, and the coastline ofCoats Land was discovered, defining the sea's eastern limits.[77][78][79]
Ernest Shackleton, who had been a member of Scott's expedition, organized and led theNimrod Expedition from 1907 to 1909. The expedition's primary objective was of reaching the South Pole. Based inMcMurdo Sound, the expedition pioneered theBeardmore Glacier route to theSouth Pole, and the (limited) use of motorised transport. Its southern march reached 88°23'S, a new Farthest South record 97geographical miles from the Pole before having to turn back. During the expedition, Shackleton was the first to reach the polar plateau. Parties led byT. W. Edgeworth David also became the first to climbMount Erebus and to reach theSouth Magnetic Pole.[80][81][82]
TheFirst German Antarctic Expedition was sent to investigate eastern Antarctica in 1901. It discovered the coast ofKaiser Wilhelm II Land, andMount Gauss. The expedition'sship became trapped in ice, however, which prevented more extensive exploration.[83][84][85]
TheSwedish Antarctic Expedition, operating at the same time worked in the east coastal area ofGraham Land, and was marooned onSnow Hill Island andPaulet Island in theWeddell Sea, after the sinking of its expedition ship. It was rescued by the Argentinian naval vesselUruguay.[86][87][88]
The French organizedtheir first expedition in 1903 under the leadership ofJean-Baptiste Charcot. Originally intended as a relief expedition for the stranded Nordenskiöld party, the main work of this expedition was the mapping and charting of islands and the western coasts ofGraham Land, on theAntarctic Peninsula. A section of the coast was explored, and namedLoubet Land after the President of France.[89][90][91]
A follow-up trip was organized from 1908 to 1910 which continued the earlier work of the French expedition with a general exploration of the Bellingshausen Sea, and the discovery of islands and other features, includingMarguerite Bay,Charcot Island,Renaud Island,Mikkelsen Bay,Rothschild Island.[92]
The prize of the Heroic Age was to find and reach the South Pole. Two expeditions set off in 1910 to attain this goal; aparty led by Norwegian Polar explorerRoald Amundsen from the shipFram andRobert Falcon Scott'sBritish group from theTerra Nova.
Amundsen succeeded in reaching the Pole on 14 December 1911 using a route from theBay of Whales to the polar plateau via theAxel Heiberg Glacier.[93][94][95]
Scott and his four companions reached the South Pole via the Beardmore route on 17 January 1912, 33 days after Amundsen. All five died on the return journey from the Pole, through a combination of starvation and cold.[96] TheAmundsen–Scott South Pole Station was later named after these two men.
TheAustralasian Antarctic Expedition took place between 1911–1914 and was led by SirDouglas Mawson. It concentrated on the stretch of Antarctic coastline between Cape Adare and Mount Gauss, carrying out mapping and survey work on coastal and inland territories.
Discoveries includedCommonwealth Bay,Ninnis Glacier,Mertz Glacier, andQueen Mary Land. Major accomplishments were made in geology, glaciology and terrestrial biology.[97]
TheImperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914–1917 was led byErnest Shackleton and set out to cross the continent via the South pole. However, their ship, theEndurance, was trapped and crushed by pack ice in theWeddell Sea before they were able to land. The expedition members survived after a journey on sledges over pack ice, a prolonged drift on anice-floe, and a voyage in three small boats toElephant Island. Then Shackleton and five otherscrossed the Southern Ocean in an open boat calledJames Caird and made the first crossing ofSouth Georgia to raise the alarm at the whaling stationGrytviken.[98]
A related component of the Trans-Antarctic Expedition was theRoss Sea party, led byAeneas Mackintosh. Its objective was to lay depots across theGreat Ice Barrier, in order to supply Shackleton's party crossing from the Weddell Sea. All the required depots were laid, but in the process three men, including the leader Mackintosh, died.[99]
Shackleton's last expedition and the one that brought the 'Heroic Age' to a close, was theShackleton–Rowett Expedition from 1921 to 1922 on board the shipQuest. Its vaguely defined objectives included coastal mapping, a possible continental circumnavigation, the investigation of sub-Antarctic islands, and oceanographic work. After Shackleton's death on 5 January 1922,Quest completed a shortened programme before returning home.[100]
After Shackleton's last expedition, there was a hiatus in Antarctic exploration for about seven years. From 1929, aircraft and mechanized transportation were increasingly used, earning this period the sobriquet of the 'Mechanical Age'.Hubert Wilkins first visited Antarctica in 1921–1922 as anornithologist attached to theShackleton–Rowett Expedition. From 1927, Wilkins and pilotCarl Ben Eielson began exploring the Arctic by aircraft.[101]
On 15 April 1928, only a year afterCharles Lindbergh's flight across the Atlantic, Wilkins and Eielson made a trans-Arctic crossing fromPoint Barrow, Alaska, toSpitsbergen, arriving about 20 hours later on 16 April, touching along the way at Grant Land onEllesmere Island.[102] For this feat and his prior work, Wilkins was knighted.
With financial backing fromWilliam Randolph Hearst, Wilkins returned to the South Pole and flew over Antarctica in theSan Francisco. He named the island ofHearst Land after his sponsor.
US Navy Rear AdmiralRichard Evelyn Byrd led five expeditions to Antarctica during the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. He overflew the South Pole with pilotBernt Balchen on 28 and 29 November 1929, to match his overflight of the North Pole in 1926. Byrd's explorations had science as a major objective and extensively used the aircraft to explore the continent.
CaptainFinn Ronne, Byrd's executive officer, returned to Antarctica with his own expedition in 1947–1948, with Navy support, three planes, and dogs. Ronne disproved the notion that the continent was divided in two and established that East and West Antarctica was one single continent, i.e. that the Weddell Sea and the Ross Sea are not connected.[103] The expedition explored and mapped large parts of Palmer Land and the Weddell Sea coastline, and identified theRonne Ice Shelf, named by Ronne after his wifeEdith Ronne.[104] Ronne covered 5,800 kilometres (3,600 mi) by ski and dog sled—more than any other explorer in history.[105]
The 1955–1958Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition successfully completed the first overland crossing of Antarctica, via theSouth Pole. Although supported by the British and other Commonwealth governments, most of the funding came from corporate and individual donations.
It was headed by British explorer DrVivian Fuchs, with New Zealander SirEdmund Hillary leading the New Zealand Ross Sea Support team. After spending the winter of 1957 at Shackleton Base, Fuchs finally set out on the transcontinental journey in November 1957, with a twelve-man team travelling in six vehicles; threeSno-Cats, twoWeasels and one specially adaptedMuskegtractor. En route, the team were also tasked with carrying out scientific research including seismic soundings and gravimetric readings.
In parallel Hillary's team had set upScott Base – which was to be Fuchs' final destination – on the opposite side of the continent atMcMurdo Sound on theRoss Sea. Using three convertedFerguson TE20 tractors[106] and oneM29 Weasel (abandoned part-way), Hillary and his three men (Ron Balham,Peter Mulgrew and Murray Ellis), were responsible for route-finding and laying a line of supply depots up theSkelton Glacier and across thePolar Plateau on towards the South Pole, for the use of Fuchs on the final leg of his journey. Other members of Hillary's team carried out geological surveys around the Ross Sea andVictoria Land areas.
Hillary's party reached the South Pole on 3 January 1958, and was just the third (preceded byAmundsen in 1911 andScott in 1912) to reach the Pole overland. Fuchs' team reached the Pole from the opposite direction on 19 January 1958, where they met up with Hillary. Fuchs then continued overland, following the route that Hillary had laid and on 2 March succeeded in reachingScott Base, completing the first overland crossing of the continent by land via the South Pole.[51]
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According to Argentina and Chile, theSpanish Empire had claims on Antarctica. Thecapitulación (governorship) granted to the conquistadorPedro Sánchez de la Hoz in 1539 by theKing of Spain,Charles V, explicitly included all lands south of theStraits of Magellan, (Terra Australis, andTierra del Fuego and by extension potentially the entire continent of Antarctica) and to the East and West the borders were the ones specified in theTreaty of Tordesillas andZaragoza, respectively, thus creating theGovernorate of Terra Australis.[11][16][17]
De la Hoz transferred the title to the conquerorPedro de Valdivia in 1540.[107] In 1555, the claim was incorporated toChile.[108]
This grant established, according toArgentina andChile, that ananimus occupandi existed on the part of Spain in Antarctica. Spain's sovereignty claim over parts of Antarctica was, according to Chile and Argentina, internationally recognized with theInter caetera bull of 1493 and theTreaty of Tordesillas of 1494. Argentina and Chile treat these treaties as legal international treaties mediated by the Catholic Church that was at that time a recognized arbiter in such matters.[109] Each country currently has claimed a sector of the Antarctic continent that is more or less directly south of its national antarctic-facing lands.
Modern Spain has not claimed any Antarctic territory. It operates two summer research stations (Gabriel de Castilla Base andJuan Carlos I Base) in theSouth Shetland Islands.
The United Kingdom reasserted sovereignty over theFalkland Islands in the farSouth Atlantic in 1833 and maintained a continuous presence there. In 1908, the British government extended its territorial claim by declaring sovereignty over "South Georgia, theSouth Orkneys, theSouth Shetlands, and theSandwich Islands, andGraham's Land, situated in the South Atlantic Ocean and on the Antarctic continent to the south of the50th parallel of south latitude, and lying between the20th and the80th degrees of west longitude".[110] All these territories were administered asFalkland Islands Dependencies fromStanley by theGovernor of the Falkland Islands. The motivation for this declaration lay in the need for regulating and taxing thewhaling industry effectively. Commercial operators would hunt whales in areas outside of the official boundaries of theFalkland Islands and its dependencies and there was a need to close this loophole.
In 1917, the wording of the claim was modified, so as to, among other things, unambiguously include all the territory in the sector stretching to the South Pole (thus encompassing all of the present-dayBritish Antarctic Territory). The new claim covered "all islands and territories whatsoever between the 20th degree of west longitude and the50th degree of west longitude which are situated south of the 50th parallel of south latitude; and all islands and territories whatsoever between the 50th degree of west longitude and the 80th degree of west longitude which are situated south of the58th parallel of south latitude".[110]
Under the ambition ofLeopold Amery, theUnder-Secretary of State for the Colonies, Britain attempted to incorporate the entire continent into theEmpire. In a memorandum to thegovernor-generals for Australia and New Zealand, he wrote that 'with the exception of Chile and Argentina and some barren islands belonging to France... it is desirable that the whole of the Antarctic should ultimately be included in the British Empire.'
The first step was taken on 30 July 1923, when the British government passed anOrder in Council under the British Settlements Act 1887, defining the new borders for theRoss Dependency - "that part of His Majesty's Dominions in the Antarctic Seas, which comprises all the islands and territories between the 160th degree of East Longitude and the 150th degree of West Longitude which are situated south of the 60th degree of South Latitude shall be named the Ross Dependency."
The Order in Council then went on to appoint the Governor-General andCommander-in Chief of New Zealand as the Governor of the territory.[111]
In 1930, the United Kingdom claimedEnderby Land. In 1933, a British imperial order transferred territory south of60° S and betweenmeridians160° E and45° E to Australia as theAustralian Antarctic Territory.[112][113]
Following the passing of theStatute of Westminster in 1931, the government of the United Kingdom relinquished all control over the government of New Zealand and Australia. This however had no bearing on the obligations of the Governor-General of both countries in their capacity as Governor of the Antarctic territories.
Meanwhile, alarmed by these unilateral declarations, the French government laid claim to a strip of the continent in 1924. The basis for their claim toAdélie Land lay on the discovery of the coastline in 1840 by the French explorerJules Dumont d'Urville, who named it after his wife, Adèle.[114] The British eventually decided to recognize this claim and the border betweenAdélie Land andAustralian Antarctic Territory was fixed definitively in 1938.[115]
These developments also concerned Norwegian whaling interests, who wished to avoid the British taxation ofwhaling stations in the Antarctic and were concerned that they would be commercially excluded from the continent. The whale-ship ownerLars Christensen financed several expeditions to the Antarctic with the view to claim land for Norway and establish stations on Norwegian territory to gain better privileges.[116] The first expedition, led by Nils Larsen and Ola Olstad, landed onPeter I Island in 1929 and claimed the island for Norway. On 6 March 1931, a Norwegian royal proclamation declared the island under Norwegiansovereignty[116] and on 23 March 1933 the island was declared a dependency.[117]
The 1929 expedition led byHjalmar Riiser-Larsen andFinn Lützow-Holm named the continental land mass near the island asQueen Maud Land, named after the Norwegian queenMaud of Wales.[118] The territory was explored further during theNorvegia expedition of 1930–31.[119] Negotiations with the British government in 1938 resulted in the western border of Queen Maud Land being set at 20°W.[119]
Norway's claim was disputed byNazi Germany,[120] which in 1938 dispatched theGerman Antarctic Expedition, led byAlfred Ritscher, to fly over as much of it as possible.[119] The shipSchwabenland reached the pack ice off Antarctica on 19 January 1939.[121] During the expedition, an area of about 350,000 square kilometres (140,000 sq mi) was photographed from the air by Ritscher,[122] who dropped darts inscribed withswastikas every 26 kilometres (16 mi). Germany eventually attempted to claim the territory surveyed by Ritscher under the nameNew Swabia, but lost any claim to the land following its defeat in theSecond World War.[120]
On 14 January 1939, five days prior to the German arrival, Queen Maud Land was annexed by Norway,[118] after a royal decree announced that the land bordering theFalkland Islands Dependencies in the west and theAustralian Antarctic Dependency in the east was to be brought under Norwegian sovereignty.[119] The primary basis for the annexation was to secure the Norwegian whaling industry's access to the region.[118][123] In 1948, Norway and the United Kingdom agreed to limit Queen Maud Land to from 20°W to 45°E, and that the Bruce Coast andCoats Land were to be incorporated into Norwegian territory.[119]
This encroachment of foreign powers was a matter of immense disquiet to the nearby South American countries,Argentina andChile. Taking advantage of a European continent plunged into turmoil with the onset of theSecond World War, Chile's president,Pedro Aguirre Cerda declared the establishment of aChilean Antarctic Territory based on theuti possidetis juris principle inheriting the Spanish claims on Terra Australis that depended on theCaptaincy General of Chile.[11] In the 20th Century these areas were claimed by Britain.
Argentina had an even longer history of involvement in the Continent. Already in 1904 the Argentine government began a permanent occupation in the area with the purchase of a meteorological station onLaurie Island established in 1903 by DrWilliam S. Bruce'sScottish National Antarctic Expedition. Bruce offered to transfer the station and instruments for the sum of 5.000pesos, on the condition that the government committed itself to the continuation of the scientific mission.[124] British officer William Haggard also sent a note to the Argentine Foreign Minister, Jose Terry, ratifying the terms of Bruce proposition.[124]
In 1906, Argentina communicated to the international community the establishment of a permanent base on South Orkney Islands. However, Haggard responded by reminding Argentina that theSouth Orkneys were British. The British position was that Argentine personnel was granted permission only for the period of one year. The Argentine government entered into negotiations with the British in 1913 over the possible transfer of the island. Although these talks were unsuccessful, Argentina attempted to unilaterally establish their sovereignty with the erection of markers, national flags and other symbols.[125]
On January 14, 1939, Norway declared its territorial claims on Antarctic territory between 0° and 20° (Queen Maud Land). This alarmed the Chilean government, which led PresidentPedro Aguirre Cerda to encourage the definition of the National Antarctic Territory. With the establishment of Decree No. 1541 on September 7, he organized a commission to examine Norway's interests in the Antarctic territory.
The Chilean commission set the bounds according to theTheory of polar areas, taking into account geographical, historical, legal, and diplomatic precedents, which were formalized by Decree No. 1747, enacted on November 6, 1940, and published on June 21, 1955.[126] Chile considered their Antarctic rights arrived up to the meridian located further west (53° West). Thus, the country claimed to not include theSouth Orkney Islands in consideration of the rights of Argentina.[d]
In response to this and earlier German explorations, the British Admiralty andColonial Office launchedOperation Tabarin in 1943 to reassert British territorial claims against Argentine andChilean incursion and establish a permanent British presence in theAntarctic.[127] The move was also motivated by concerns within theForeign Office about the direction of United States post-war activity in the region.
A suitable cover story was the need to deny use of the area to the enemy. TheKriegsmarine was known to use remote islands as rendezvous points and as shelters for commerce raiders,U-boats and supply ships. Also, in 1941, there existed a fear that Japan might attempt to seize theFalkland Islands, either as a base or to hand them over to Argentina, thus gaining political advantage for theAxis and denying their use to Britain.
In January 1942, Argentina declared its Antarctic rights between the meridians at 25° and 68° 24' W, which includes the area ofPunta Dúngeness. On September 2, 1946, Decree No. 8944 set new boundaries for theArgentine Antarctic Sector between the meridians at 25° and 74° west longitude. Finally, on February 28, 1957, Decree Law No. 2129 established the definitive limits of their claim between the meridians at 25° and 74° West and the parallel 60° South latitude. This decree established a territory which is superimposed on part of the territory claimed by Chile.[citation needed]
Finally, with British attention elsewhere, Argentina declared the establishment ofArgentine Antarctica in 1943, claiming territory that overlapped with British (20°W to80°W) and the earlier Chilean (53°W to90°W) claims.[citation needed]
In 1943, British personnel fromHMSCarnarvon Castle[128] removed Argentine flags fromDeception Island. The expedition was led by LieutenantJames Marr and left theFalkland Islands in two ships,HMSWilliam Scoresby (a minesweeping trawler) andFitzroy, on Saturday 29 January 1944.
Bases were established during February near the abandoned Norwegian whaling station onDeception Island, where theUnion Flag was hoisted in place of Argentine flags, and atPort Lockroy (on February 11) on the coast ofGraham Land. A further base was founded atHope Bay on 13 February 1945, after a failed attempt to unload stores on 7 February 1944. Symbols of British sovereignty, includingpost offices, signposts andplaques were also constructed andpostage stamps were issued.
Operation Tabarin provoked Chile to organize itsFirst Chilean Antarctic Expedition in 1947–48, where the Chilean presidentGabriel González Videla personally inaugurated theBase General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme.[129]
Following the end of the war in 1945, the British bases were handed over to civilian members of the newly createdFalkland Islands Dependencies Survey (subsequently theBritish Antarctic Survey) the first such national scientific body to be established in Antarctica.
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Geopolitics over Antarctica and the control of the passages between the south Atlantic and the south Pacific have led to the founding of cities and towns such asUshuaia andPuerto Williams, both of which claim to be the southernmost cities in World.
In the late 1940s, Argentina and Chile recognized each other's claims,[130] stating that "Chile and Argentina have unquestionable rights of sovereignty in the polar area called American Antarctica ("Antártida Americana" in Spanish)".[131][132]
On March 4, 1948, Chile and Argentina signed an agreement on mutual protection and legal defense of its Antarctic territorial rights, recognizing each other:[citation needed]
(...) until agreed, by mutual agreement, the line common neighborhood in Antarctic territories of Chile and Argentina, declared:
1) That both governments acting in agreement on legal protection and defense of their rights in American Antarctica, between the meridians 25° and 90° west longitude of Greenwich,indisputable sovereign rights are recognized by Chile and Argentina.
Currently,[when?] both countries haveresearch stations in Antarctica, as does the United Kingdom. All three nations claim the totality of theAntarctic Peninsula.
Friction between Britain and theLatin American states continued into the post war period.Royal Navy warships were despatched in 1948 to prevent naval incursions and in 1952, an Argentine shore party atHope Bay (the British Base "D", established there in 1945, came up against the ArgentineEsperanza Base, est. 1952) fired a machine gun over the heads of aBritish Antarctic Survey team unloading supplies from theJohn Biscoe. The Argentines later extended adiplomatic apology, saying that there had been a misunderstanding and that the Argentine military commander on the ground had exceeded his authority.
The United States became politically interested in the Antarctic continent before and during WWII. TheUnited States Antarctic Service Expedition, from 1939 to 1941, was sponsored by the government with additional support came from donations and gifts by private citizens, corporations and institutions. The objectives of the Expedition, outlined by PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt, was to establish two bases: East Base, in the vicinity ofCharcot Island, and West Base, in the vicinity ofKing Edward VII Land. After operating successfully for two years, but with international tensions on the rise, it was considered wise to evacuate the two bases.[133]
However, immediately after the war, American interest was rekindled with an explicitly geopolitical motive.Operation Highjump, from 1946 to 1947 was organized byRear AdmiralRichard E. Byrd Jr. and included 4,700 men, 13 ships, and multiple aircraft. The primary mission of Operation Highjump was to establish theAntarctic research baseLittle America IV,[134] for the purpose of training personnel and testing equipment in frigid conditions and amplifying existing stores of knowledge ofhydrographic, geographic,geological,meteorological andelectromagnetic propagation conditions in the area. The mission was also aimed at consolidating and extending United States sovereignty over the largest practicable area of theAntarctic continent, although this was publicly denied as a goal even before the expedition ended.
Meanwhile, in an attempt at ending the impasse, on May 4, 1955, Britain submitted two applications to theInternational Court of Justice to adjudicate between the territorial claims of Britain, Argentina and Chile, declaring invalid the claims of sovereignty of the two countries in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic areas, respectively. This proposal failed, as both Latin American countries rejected submitting to an international arbitration procedure.[135] On July 15, 1955, the Chilean government rejected the jurisdiction of the Court in that case, and on August 1, August, Argentine government followed suit. Thus, on March 16 March 1956, claims were filed.[136]
Law No. 11486 of June 17, 1955, added the Chilean Antarctic Territory to theProvince of Magallanes, which on July 12, 1974 became theRegion of Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica.
In 1958, the U.S. president,Dwight Eisenhower, invited Chile to theInternational Geophysical Year Conference in an attempt to resolve the claiming issues.
Negotiations towards the establishment of an international condominium over the continent first began in 1948, involving the 7 claimant powers (Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France, Norway, Chile and Argentina) and the US. This attempt was aimed at excluding theSoviet Union from the affairs of the continent and rapidly fell apart when the USSR declared an interest in the region, refused to recognize any claims of sovereignty and reserved the right to make its own claims in 1950.[135]
An important impetus toward the formation of theAntarctic Treaty System in 1959, was theInternational Geophysical Year, 1957–1958. This year of international scientific cooperation triggered an 18-month period of intense Antarctic science. More than 70 existing national scientific organizations then formed IGY committees, and participated in the cooperative effort. The British establishedHalley Research Station in 1956 by an expedition from theRoyal Society. SirVivian Fuchs headed theCommonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, which completed the first overland crossing of Antarctica in 1958. In Japan, theJapan Maritime Safety Agency offeredice breakerSōya as the South Pole observation ship andShowa Station was built as the first Japanese observation base on Antarctica.
France contributed withDumont d'Urville Station andCharcot Station inAdélie Land. The shipCommandant Charcot of theFrench Navy spent nine months of 1949/50 at the coast of Adelie Land, performingionospheric soundings.[137] The US erected theAmundsen–Scott South Pole Station as the first permanent structure directly over the South Pole in January 1957.[138]
Finally, to prevent the possibility of military conflict in the region, the United States, United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and 9 other countries with significant interests negotiated and signed theAntarctic Treaty in 1959. The treaty entered into force in 1961 and sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation and bannedmilitary activity on that continent. The treaty was the firstarms control agreement established during theCold War.[139]
In May 1965, the American physicistCarl R. Disch went missing during the course of his routine research nearByrd Station, Antarctica. His body was never found.[140][failed verification]
A baby, namedEmilio Marcos de Palma, was born nearHope Bay on 7 January 1978, becoming the first baby born on the continent. He also was born farther south than anyone in history.[141]
On 28 November 1979, anAir New ZealandDC-10 on a sightseeing tripcrashed intoMount Erebus onRoss Island, killing all 257 people on board.[142]
In 1991 a convention among member nations of the Antarctic Treaty on how to regulate mining and drilling was proposed. Australian Prime MinisterBob Hawke and French Prime MinisterMichel Rocard led a response to this convention that resulted in the adoption of theProtocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, now known as the Madrid Protocol. All mineral extraction was banned for 50 years and the Antarctic was set aside as a "natural reserve, devoted to peace and science".[143]
Børge Ousland, a Norwegian explorer, finished the first unassisted Antarctic solo crossing on 18 January 1997.
On 23 November 2007, theMVExplorer struck an iceberg and sank, but all on board were rescued by nearby ships, including a passing Norwegiancruise ship, theMSNordnorge.
In 2010, theIceCube Neutrino Observatory was completed.[144] In 2013, it was reported that the observatory had detected 28neutrinos that originated outside theSolar System.[145]
Women did not explore Antarctica until well into the 1950s. A few pioneering women visited the Antarctic land and waters prior to the 1950s and many women requested to go on early expeditions, but were turned away.[146] Early pioneers such asLouise Séguin[147] andIngrid Christensen were some of the first women to see Antarctic waters.[148] Christensen was the first woman to set foot on the mainland of Antarctica.[148] The first women to have any fanfare about their Antarctic journeys wereCaroline Mikkelsen who set foot on an island of Antarctica in 1935,[149] andJackie Ronne andJennie Darlington who were the first women to over-winter in Antarctica in 1947.[150] The first woman scientist to work in Antarctica wasMaria Klenova in 1956.[151] Silvia Morella de Palma was the first woman to give birth in Antarctica, delivering 3.4 kg (7 lb 8 oz)Emilio Palma at the Argentine Esperanza base 7 January 1978.
Women faced legal barriers and sexism that prevented most from visiting Antarctica and doing research until the late 1960s. TheUnited States Congress banned American women from traveling to Antarctica until 1969.[152] Women were often excluded because it was thought that they could not handle the extreme temperatures or crisis situations.[153] The first woman from theBritish Antarctic Survey to go to Antarctica wasJanet Thomson in 1983 who described the ban on women as a "rather improper segregation."[154][155]
Once women were allowed in Antarctica, they still had to fight against sexism and sexual harassment.[156][157] However, a tipping point was reached in the mid-1990s when it became the new normal that women were part of Antarctic life.[158] Women began to see a change as more and more women began working and researching in Antarctica.[159]
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Mill, Hugh Robert (1911). "Polar Regions §Antarctic Region". InChisholm, Hugh (ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.After the discovery of the Strait of Magellan (1520), geographers and cartographers were more convinced than ever of the ancient theory of Claudio Tolomeo, who maintained that a continent did exist around the South Pole. They published maps and charts based on the hypothesis that Tierra del Fuego was the beginning of that Terra Australis. The first person ever to have rights over these lands was Pedro Sancho de la Hoy, who received them through a special decree signed by Emperor Charles V on 24 January 1539. This decree gave to de la Hoy all territories to the south of the Strait of Magellan, including Antarctica. During the next two centuries, several other de-crees by the Spanish sovereign confirmed that all lands to the south of the Drake Passage were part of the Kingdom of Chile.
Terra Australis (the southern land), south of the Magellan Strait to the South Pole, in 1539 and Chilean governors during the colonial period had territorial jurisdiction over the Antarctic (Paravic Valdivia, 1988).
quinta gobernación llamada Terra Australis. Esta gobernación abarcaba desde la ribera sur del Estrecho de Magallanes hasta el polo; es decir, la parte más austral del continente. Sin embargo, se renunció a esta capitulación y fue cedida a favor de la Gobernación de Chile (véase Mapa 3)
It was in this period that Edward Bransfield surveyed the South Shetlands in 1819–20 and may have been the first to sight the Antarctic Continent
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This article incorporatespublic domain material from websites or documents of theUnited States Board on Geographic Names.
