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TheExpedition of Tabuk (Arabic:غَزوَة تَبوك;Ghazwat Tabūk), also known as theCampaign of Hardship (Ghazwat al-ʿUsrah), was a military campaign that was initiated by theIslamic prophetMuhammad in October 630 CE (Rajab AH 9), in response to reports of a potentialByzantine invasion of northern Arabia. He led a force of as many as 30,000[1][2] north toTabuk, near theGulf of Aqaba, in present-day northwesternSaudi Arabia.[2] Although no direct battle occurred, the campaign was significant for asserting Muslim presence in the region and securing strategic alliances.
After the Muslim victory at theBattle of Hunayn in theaftermath of the conquest of Mecca, the political landscape of Arabia shifted in favour of the emergingFirst Islamic state. Reports were received by the Prophet Muhammad that theByzantine Empire,[1] underEmperor Heraclius, was mobilising troops in theLevant, supported by their Arab Christian client tribes such as theGhassanids.[3]
Historians differ on the accuracy of these reports. According toal-Tabari, it was believed that Heraclius had stationed a large force at Balqa in southern Syria.[4] Some modern scholars, however, suggest that this intelligence may have been exaggerated or even unsubstantiated.[5]
In response, Muhammad called for a mobilisation. The campaign was undertaken during a time of severe heat and drought, testing the resolve of the Muslim community. The Quran refers to this expedition as the Campaign of Hardship,[Quran 9:117] noting the difficulties faced and the initial reluctance of some companions.[6]
The army comprised approximately 30,000 men, including 10,000 cavalry—the largest force yet assembled by the Muslims.[7] Wealthy companions such asUthman contributed substantial financial and material support.Ibn Hisham records that Uthman equipped one-third of the army and donated 1,000 gold dinars.[8]
The army marched northward over 700 km to Tabuk, near theGulf of Aqaba, close to the modern border of Saudi Arabia and Jordan in October 630 (Rajab AH 9).[2][9] It was his largest and last military expedition.[2]Ali ibn Abi Talib, who participated in several other expeditions of Muhammad, did not participate in Muhammad's Tabuk expedition upon Muhammad's instructions, as he held command atMedina.[10]
Upon arrival, Muhammad spent twenty days at Tabuk, scouting the area, making alliances with local Christian and Arab tribes, including the rulers of Aylah (modernAqaba),Jarba, andAdhruh, who agreed to payjizya in return for protection.[9][11] With no sign of the Byzantine army,[2] he decided to return to Medina.[1] There is no evidence that a Byzantine army was deployed in the region at the time, leading some scholars to conclude that the threat was either misperceived or that the Byzantines withdrew upon learning of Muhammad’s advance.[12] Though Muhammad did not encounter a Byzantine army at Tabuk, according to theOxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, "this show of force demonstrated his intention to challenge the Byzantines for control of the northern part of the caravan route fromMecca toSyria".[2]
The expedition ended without combat, but it had lasting consequences. On returning toMedina, Muhammad was welcomed by those who had remained behind. The expedition solidified Muhammad’s leadership and discouraged future Byzantine involvement in Arabia.[citation needed]
Moreover, it exposed the hypocrisy of certain individuals who had refused to participate. The Qur’an censures them in several verses, particularly inSurat at-Tawbah, where they are referred to as the "hypocrites" (munāfiqūn).[Quran 9:81–96]
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