TheExcubitors (Latin:excubitores orexcubiti,lit. 'those out of bed', i.e. 'sentinels';[a] transcribed intoGreek asἐξκουβίτορες or ἐξκούβιτοι,exkoubitores/exkoubitoi) were founded inc. 460 as animperial guard-unit by theByzantine emperorLeo I the Thracian. The 300-strong force, originally recruited from among the warlike mountain tribe of theIsaurians, replaced the olderScholae Palatinae as the main imperialbodyguards. The Excubitors remained an active military unit for the next two centuries, although, as imperial bodyguards, they did not often go on campaign. Their commander, the Count of the Excubitors (comes excubitorum,κόμης τῶν ἐξκουβίτων), soon acquired great influence.Justin I was able to use this position to rise to the throne in 518, and thereafter the Counts of the Excubitors were among the main political power-holders of their day; two more,Tiberius II Constantine andMaurice, rose to become emperors in the late 6th century.

In the later part of the 7th century the Excubitors appear to have morphed into a parade-ground formation, and they fade from the record as a corps. Individual seals of office suggest that the title ofexcubitor became an honorific dignity rather than an active military appointment during the early part of the 8th century. This changedc. 760, when the EmperorConstantine V reformed the corps into one of the élitetagmata - professionalheavy-cavalry regiments that constituted the core of theByzantine army of the middle-Byzantine period. Notable members of the regiment during this time include SaintJoannicius the Great (servedc. 772 to 792), and EmperorMichael II the Amorian, who served as regimental commander, orDomestic of the Excubitors (δομέστικος τῶν ἐξκουβίτων), before rising to the throne in 820. The Excubitors fought in several campaigns during the following centuries, and are last attested in the disastrousBattle of Dyrrhachium in 1081 that destroyed the remnants of the middle-Byzantine army.

The Excubitors were founded byEmperor Leo I (r. 457–474) inc. 460 and were recruited from among the sturdy and warlikeIsaurians, as part of Leo's effort to counterbalance the influence of themagister militumAspar and the largeGermanic element in theEast Roman army.^[2][3][4] Unlike the older palace regiments of theScholae Palatinae, which were under the control of themagister officiorum and eventually degenerated to parade-ground formations, the Excubitors long remained a crack fighting force.^[5][6][7]

The unit was headed by the count of the Excubitors (Latin:comes excubitorum;Ancient Greek:κόμης τῶν ἐξκουβίτων/ἐξκουβιτόρων,romanized: komēs tōn exkoubitōn/exkoubitorōn), who was entirely independent of all other officials and subordinated only to the emperor himself.^[7] By virtue of his proximity to the emperor, the count of the Excubitors became an official of great importance in the 6th and 7th centuries. This post, which can be traced up toc. 680, was usually held by close members of the imperial family, often virtualheirs apparent.^[4][7][8] Thus it was the support of his men that securedJustin I (r. 518–527), who held the post at the time of the death ofAnastasius I (r. 491–518), his elevation to the throne.[9]^[8] Similarly,Justin II (r. 565–578) relied on the support of the Excubitors for his unchallenged accession; their count, Tiberius, was a close friend who had been appointed to the post through Justin's intervention. Tiberius was to be the Emperor's right-hand man throughout his reign, eventually succeeding him asTiberius II (r. 578–582).[10]^[11] He too would be succeeded by his owncomes excubitorum,Maurice (r. 582–602).[12] Under Maurice, the post was held by his brother-in-lawPhilippicus, and underPhocas (r. 602–610) byPriscus.^[8] Another powerful occupant wasValentinus, who secured it during the power struggles that accompanied the regency of Empress-dowagerMartina in 641, before deposing her and her sonHeraklonas and installingConstans II (r. 641–668) as emperor. Valentinus dominated the new regime, but his attempt to become emperor himself in 644 ended in his beinglynched by the mob.^[13]

By the late 6th century, the count of the Excubitors held the highest court ranks, ofpatrikios andvir gloriosissimus.^[7] Apart from their duties as commander of the Excubitors, holders of the office now also undertook other functions such as recruiting troops and interrogating suspected traitors.^[7] The count of the Excubitors was even sent to lead campaigns.^[7] The power that went with the position, and the intrigues of men like Priscus and the would-be usurper Valentinus, doomed the post to eventual decline during the latter half of the 7th century,^[14] although it is likely that the post continued in existence into the 8th century, until the corps was reorganized.^[15]

The participation of the Excubitors in campaigns is well attested, such as in 598, when Emperor Maurice took them to defend theAnastasian Wall against theAvars.^[16] They served withHeraclius (r. 610–641) against theSasanian Persians, andc. 650 some Excubitors appear as guards toPope Martin I.^[17] During the later 7th century, like theScholae before them, the Excubitors degenerated to a parade-ground unit that saw no active service.^[18] Indeed, it appears that during the 7th and early 8th centuries, the titles ofexcubitor andscribon wereawarded as court dignities, paralleling the development of similar formerly military titles such ascandidatus. This is evidenced by a large number of seals naming individualexcubitors during this time, in stark contrast to the periods before and after, when the Excubitors are attested as an active military unit. Furthermore, in many of these seals, individualexcubitores—as well asscribones—are shown to have conjointly held bureaucratic offices, while at least one seal is known of a certain George, who was bothexcubitor and ascholarius (a member of theScholae).^[19]

After being mentioned in a letter byJustinian II (r. 685–695, 705–711) toPope John V in 687,^[20] the Excubitors as a corps disappear from the historical sources until they re-emerge, under a new commander, the domestic of the Excubitors (δομέστικος τῶν ἐξκουβίτων,domestikos tōn exkoubitōn) and in a new capacity, as one of the imperialtagmata, which comprised the elite professional central army established byConstantine V (r. 741–775) inc. 760.[21]^[22] Thetagmata were cavalry units,^[23] armed and equipped by the imperial arms factories to a higher standard than the provincial ('thematic') forces, likely includinghorse armour.^[24] As such the Excubitors were no longer a palace guard, but a unit actively engaged in military campaigns. At the same time, thetagmata, being loyal to the emperor's person, represented a counterbalance to the thematic armies of the provinces and constituted a powerful tool in implementing theiconoclastic policies pursued by Constantine V.^[25][26] Their original role as palace guardians was taken over by another, newly createdtagma, that of theVigla.^[27]

Nevertheless, the possibly first commander of thetagma,Strategios Podopagouros, was among the leaders of a failed plot against Constantine V's life in 765, and was executed after its discovery. This initiated a purge of the new units from suspected opponents of the Emperor's policies.^[28][29] By the 780s, following years of imperial favour and military victories under Constantine V and his sonLeo IV the Khazar (r. 775–780), thetagmata had become firm adherents to the iconoclast cause.[25]^[30] Within less than two months of Leo V's death in 780, Empress-regentIrene of Athens had to foil an attempt spearheaded by the Domestic of the Excubitors to place Constantine V's exiled second son,Nikephoros, on the throne,^[31] and in 785/86 Irene forcibly disarmed them and exiled some 1,500 tagmatic soldiers due to their resistance to therestoration of the icons.^[32][33][34]

At the same time, thetagmata were extensively employed in campaigns during this period: their participation is attested at least for Constantine V's 773 campaign against theBulgars, and during theAbbasid invasion of Asia Minor in 782.^[27] Indeed, the historian John Haldon remarks that the retention of thetagmata by Irene, despite their iconoclastic bias, is testament to their effectiveness as a field force.^[34] TheScholae and the Excubitors nevertheless continued to play an active political role in the events of the following decades: in 792, they attempted to overthrow Irene's son,Constantine VI (r. 780–797), after the disastrousBattle of Marcellae against the Bulgars, and in 797, their support was crucial for Irene's overthrowing her own son and replacing him as sole ruler; and again, the twotagmata were crucial in the deposition of Irene herself in 802.^[35]

The Excubitors took part in the disastrousPliska campaign in 811, when the Byzantine army was routed by TsarKrum of Bulgaria (r. 803–814); the Domestic of the Excubitors fell in the field along with the other senior Byzantine generals, including EmperorNikephoros I himself (r. 802–811).[36] The most prominent domestic of the Excubitors of the period wasMichael II the Amorian (r. 820–829), whose supporters overthrew EmperorLeo V the Armenian (r. 813–820) and raised him to the throne.[37] The regiment also fought at the battles ofBoulgarophygon in 896 andAcheloos in 917, both heavy defeats against the Bulgarians.^[38] In the expedition against theEmirate of Crete in 949, the Byzantine force included a contingent of over 700 Excubitors.^[38] In 958, the Excubitors participated in the repulsion of aMagyar raid.^[38]

The Excubitors took part in the failedAzaz campaign of 1030, where they were ambushed and dispersed by theMirdasids, while their commander, thepatrikiosLeo Choirosphaktes, was taken captive.^[39] As with most of the Byzantine army, thetagmata of the capital atrophied during the mid-11th century, and many of them disappear in the turmoils of foreign invasion and civil wars that followed the destruction of the Byzantine field army in theBattle of Manzikert in 1071. The Excubitors are last attested inAnna Komnene'sAlexiad, where they are recorded as participating at theBattle of Dyrrhachium against theItalo-Normans in 1081, under the command ofConstantine Opos.^[40][41][42]

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The internal structure of the regiment during its first centuries is obscure.^[43] Unlike theScholae, which comprised several sub-units garrisoned throughoutBithynia (and occasionally inThrace) as well asConstantinople,^[44] the Excubitors were a small and elite unit that served in theimperial palace itself and was intended exclusively to protect the emperor.^[45] From their foundation and throughout the early period of their existence, the Excubitors numbered 300 men.^[2][4] Originally recruited exclusively from Isaurians, the unit was eventually opened up to other ethnicities, but it is unclear how the new recruits were chosen.^[43] Based on the retention of late antique ranks in the middle Byzantine period, the Excubitors appear to have been structured similarly to theScholae.^[46] Their arms and equipment are unknown, other than that they are recorded as carryingmaces. Since they were a bodyguard unit intended to serve in the palace, they were most likely infantry.^[46]

The presence of officers calledscribones in the corps has been controversial:John B. Bury andA. H. M. Jones both suggested that they were a separate, although possibly related, unit.^[43][47] Based on the presence of thescribones among the ranks of the later, middle Byzantine incarnation of the Excubitors, however, it is thought that thescribones were thesubaltern officers of the count of the Excubitors.^[43] The historianWarren Treadgold speculates that they fulfilled a role similar to the regular cavalrydecurions, commanding troops of 30 men each,^[6] but thescribones also appear in charge of administrative matters such as handing out pay to the soldiers,^[46] as well as more sensitive tasks such as delivering letters, making arrests, and preparing expeditions.^[43]

In its later incarnation as atagma, the regiment (often called collectivelyτὸ ἐξκούβιτον,to exkoubiton orτὰ ἐξκούβιτα,ta exkoubita) was structured along thesame standardized lines followed by the othertagmata, with a few variations in the titles of its officers.^[48][49][50]

The regimental commander, the domestic of the Excubitors (often also shortened to "the Excubitor",ὁ ἐξκουβίτωρ/ἐξκούβιτος),^[51] is well attested in the various lists of offices in the 9th–10th centuries, where it is held in tandem with that of the chief (dēmokratēs) of the "suburban" (περατικοὶ,peratikoi) members of the racing faction (dēmos) of theGreens, which functioned as a militia for the defence of Constantinople, and of the regiment of the "Walls".^[51][52][53] The domestics were originally of strikingly lowcourt rank (merespatharioi, 'sword-bearers'), but they gradually rose to importance: while in theTaktikon Uspensky ofc. 842 the domestic of the Excubitors came behind all the thematic commanders (stratēgoi) in order of precedence, in theKlētorologion of 899, the domestic is shown as superior to thestratēgoi of the European themes and even to theEparch of Constantinople. At the same time, the court dignities they held rose to the much loftier ranks ofprōtospatharios ('first sword-bearer') and evenpatrikios ('patrician').^[21][50]

TheEscorial Taktikon, writtenc. 971/75, records the existence of a "Domestic of the Excubitors of the East" (δομέστικος τῶν ἐξκουβίτων τῆς ἀνατολῆς), and a "Domestic of the Excubitors of the West" (δομέστικος τῶν ἐξκουβίτων τῆς δύσεως), as well as a subaltern "Domestic of the Excubitors".[51] This has led to the suggestion that, probably underRomanos II (r. 959–963), the regiment, like the seniorScholae, was split in two units, one for the West and one for the East, each headed by a respective domestic.[21]^[54] However, unlike theScholae, these designations no longer appear in any later source, and they may have been of brief existence.^[51] The subaltern domestic of the Excubitors may either by a copyist error, or, according toVera von Falkenhausen, indicate a subordinate official in charge of Excubitors stationed in the provinces; indeed such provincial detachments are attested, albeit only for thethemes ofLongobardia insouthern Italy and ofHellas in Greece.^[55]

The fact that the unit did not partake in campaigns during the 7th century preserved it from the reforms that affected the field army during this period, so that the late antique terminology for its junior officers remained relatively intact.^[56] The domestic was assisted by atopotērētēs (τοποτηρητής,lit. 'placeholder', 'lieutenant') and achartoularios (χαρτουλάριος, 'secretary').^[50][57] Thetopotērētēs was of relatively low-to-middle court rank (originallystratōr, 'groom' orspatharios, laterspatharokandidatos). He may have commanded provincial detachments of the regiment, and there may have been more than onetopotērētai at the same time, for each of these detachments.^[57]

Based on a reference from thehagiography of St.Joannicius the Great (762–846), who was himself recruited into the regiment and served there until deserting it following the Battle of Marcellae,^[58] in 773 the regiment itself was divided into at least eighteenbanda, probably each commanded by askribōn (σκρίβων), showing the retention of the role of the earlierscribones as the main subaltern officers of the regiment.^[48][59][60] Eachbandon was further divided into sub-units headed by adrakonarios (δρακονάριος, deriving from the late Romandraconarius). The post was originally that of a standard-bearer, but after Constantine V's reform of the unit into atagma, thedrakonarioi probably functioned as junior officers. The junior officers also included theskeuophoroi (σκευοφόροι, 'standard carriers'),signophoroi (σιγνοφόροι, i.e.signifers) andsinatores (σινάτορες, from thelate Roman rank ofsenator, now much reduced in prominence).^[61][62][63] There were also the usual messengers (μανδάτορες,mandatores) under aprōtomandatōr, some of whom were also termedlegatarioi (λεγατάριοι), possibly entrusted with police duties.^[61][63]

The size of thetagma of the Excubitors and its subdivisions can not be determined with certainty; as with the othertagmata, modern scholars are of differing opinions regarding its numerical strength. Drawing on the lists of officers and accounts of Arab geographersIbn Khordadbeh andQudamah, historianWarren Treadgold suggested an establishment strength ofc. 4,000 men, which for theScholae and the Excubitors rose toc. 6,000 with the division of the regiments in the mid-10th century.[64] Other scholars, most prominentlyJohn Haldon, based on a more conservative reading of sources, have provided estimates of around 1,000 men for eachtagma.^[65] For security reasons, both theScholae and the Excubitors were scattered in garrisons in Thrace and Bithynia rather than being stationed within Constantinople, making it harder for them to be used in mounting a coup.^[27][66][67]

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