Table summary

See also

Footnotes

1. ^if clear. Otherwise brief information provided against specific cases
2. ^flag whether the dictator was formally a head of state, either as a monarch (king, tsar), regent, president, leader, state elder, chairman of a collegial body or any other formally recognised title. "N/a" stands for collective dictatorships, where there was no person identified as a dictator
3. ^flag whether the dictator was heading the country executive, typically a government, with the role of a prime minister
4. ^includes monopolistic parties such asNSDAP, and organisations posing as non-party citizen associations, e.g.Unión Patriótica in Spain orVaterländische Front in Austria. In few cases such organisation existed, but the dictator was neither its leader nor even member, see e.g. the case ofBBWR in Poland orFrontul Renașterii Naționale in Romania. "N/a" stands for collective dictatorships with no clear personal leader
5. ^"corced" stands for a parliament formally elected and operating according to pre-dictatorial rules, but controlled by means of electoral process and subservient majority; "redesigned" stands for a parliament composed and functioning according to new rules, defined by the dictatorship; "none" stands for no parliament at all
6. ^"MP" (multi-party) refers to regimes where multiple political parties were formally legal; "NPO" (non-partisan opposition) refers to one-party and non-partisan states which dissolved the party system but allowed the opposition candidates to run on an independent platform; "OP" (one-party) and "NP" (non-partisan) refer to one-party and non-partisan states where opposition and non-governmental organizations were not allowed
7. ^until 1928 as president, afterwards as king
8. ^following the assassination of Dolfuss, leadership ofVaterländische Front was assumed byErnst Rüdiger Starhemberg. Schuschnigg replaced him in 1936
9. ^the regime createdДемократически сговор, a heterogeneous political entity intended as a platform of popular mobilisation; leadership in the party was heavily contested between Tsankov andAndrey Lyapchev
10. ^Although all political parties were banned following the1934 coup, candidates representing parties participated in elections as independent candidates (see1939 Bulgarian parliamentary election)
11. ^President wasEmil Hácha and Prime Ministers wereJan Syrový (until Dec. 1938) and his successorRudolf Beran
12. ^the prime minister Rudolf Beran became chairman of the state party, Strana národní jednoty, but his position was a far cry from personal dictatorship
13. ^apart from merging numerous parties into one state party, the parliament was disenfranchised as the government and the president were given legislative rights for the period of 2 years, Jan Kuklík,Czech Law in Historical Contexts, Prague 2015, p. 114
14. ^in Bohemian part only 2 parties were allowed to operate, Kuklík 2015, p. 114. In the Slovak part there were other parties operational. Some authors mention "destruction of democratic Czechoslovakia", see Anton Pelinka, Gunter Bischof, Michael Gehler,Austrian Foreign Policy in Historical Context, p. 114; others contrast “democratic First Republic (1918-1938)” with “authoritarian Second Republic (1938-1939)” and note “dismantling not just of Masaryk’s republic but of its democratic structure in 1938-1939", Andrea Orzoff,Battle for the Castle: The Myth of Czechoslovakia in Europe, 1914-1948, London 2011. pp. 12, 131
15. ^at different stages key personalities were Hermann Rauschning, Arthur Greiser and Albert Forster, though all were party subordinates of Adolf Hitler
16. ^Päts was Prime Minister in duties of theState Elder, and after the new constitution came to force, served as temporarycaretaker head of state until the presidential elections of 1938
17. ^Päts had previously led a party,Asunikkude ning väikemaapidajate Koondis, which was dissolved in 1935. Päts' government was effectively supported by a newly-formedPatriotic League (Isamaaliit), the only legal political movement while the activities of all political parties remained suspended in the country
18. ^The unicameral parliament (Riigikogu) was adjourned in October 1934 and never resumed session. A new bicameral parliament was elected in 1938.
19. ^since March 20, 1935 the activities of all political parties were suspended, however individual pro-government and opposition candidates were able to run freely in the1936 Estonian National Assembly elections and 1938 parliamentary elections.
20. ^in 1933-1934 the head of state waspresident Hindenburg; following his death Hitler abolished the role altogether and merged presidential rights into a new role, "der Führer und Reichskanzler"
21. ^formally the regime did not introduce major institutional changes to electoral and parliamentarian regime. However, in practice elections staged in 1933, 1936 and 1938 were fully manipulated by the Nazis and held on non-alternative basis (with the Nazi Party as the only candidate). Between 1933 and 1942Reichstag convened 20 times, mostly as an audience to Hitler's harrangues; it exercised no political power
22. ^until 1926 the head of state was presidentPavlos Kountouriotis; Pangalos deposed him following rigged presidential elections
23. ^Metaxas headed own party,Κόμμα των Ελευθεροφρόνων, which he dissolved upon seizing power
24. ^asFirst Hungarian Republic has never achieved legal stability, the role of head of state has not been clearly specified. The closest position was this of head of the Hungarian Central Executive Council, the role held bySándor Garbai
25. ^The governments established in Szeged in 1919 during theperiod of revolution and counter-revolution;Gyula Károlyi, the first head of the Szeged government,Gyula Gömbös,István Bethlen, Horthy, andIstván Friedrich are mentioned as leaders of the counter-revolutionaries (East Central Europe Between the Two World Wars, Joseph Rothschild, 2016
26. ^due to rigged political system, the party victorious in all elections organized wasEgységes Párt / Nemzeti Egység Pártja / Magyar Élet Pártja; though customarily referred to as "the government party" it has formed an autonomous part of the Horthy regime, independent of the regent himself
27. ^Italian Social Republic between 23 September 1943 and 25 April 1945.
28. ^until 1943 the head of state was kingVictor Emmanuel III. The Italian Social Republic has never adopted a constitution or other legal act which formally defined head of state, even though Mussolini de facto acted as such
29. ^the Italian parliament underwent a few major changes throughout the fascist era; theAcerbo Law of 1923 re-defined electoral regime, in 1938 the chamber was replaced with entirely new corporativeCamera dei Fasci e delle Corporazioni, and in 1943 an Assemblea Costituente was declared for the RSI
30. ^until 1926 political parties were formally allowed to operate
31. ^until 1936 the president wasAlberts Kviesis. Upon expiration of his term, Ulmanis by decree assumed presidential duties
32. ^Ulmanis led his own party,Latvijas Zemnieku savienība, which he dissolved upon seizing power. There were other organizations he supported or created as vehicles of popular mobilization, like the paramilitaryAizsargi or self-developmentMazpulki, but none amounted either to a state party or general patriotic front
33. ^numerous professional chambers have been created, with sort of their joint representation, but they never assumed political duties
34. ^Tyler Kuck 2014, p. 241
35. ^in 1926 Smetona handed the leadership ofLietuvių Tautininkų Sąjunga to Liudas Noreika; other party leaders followed later
36. ^the originalSeimas was not convened until 1936; afterwards elections were organized according to new rules set up by the regime
37. ^European Dictatorships: A Comparative History of the Twentieth Century. Cambridge Scholars. 3 January 2014.ISBN 978-1-4438-5521-1.
38. ^Piłsudski was prime minister during two strings of 634 days (1926–1928) and 101 days (1930). Usually he preferred to rule from the back seat with his appointees in the front row.
39. ^The regime formed its own organisation which claimed not to have been a party,BBWR; its head wasWalery Sławek and Piłsudski did not bother to join.
40. ^following the death of Piłsudski there was no obvious leader among his successors, with individuals like his personal friendWalery Sławek, presidentIgnacy Mościcki or army headEdward Rydz-Śmigły competing for power
41. ^leader of the 1917 coup,Sidónio Pais held the post of Portugal's president; the system is noted as "plebiscitary effort at a presidential regime", though some think it fell short of a personal dictatorship, Payne 1983, p. 140
42. ^the presidentBernardino Machado went on exile on Dec 15, 1917. Pais became acting president following his decree of Dec 27, 1917; following rigged presidential elections of April 1918 he was formally confirmed as president in May 1918
43. ^Officially as prime minister until May 1918; afterwards premiership role was formally merged with this of the president.
44. ^initially the key though not dominating person behind the regime was its president,Oscar Carmona. He shared power with other military and prime ministers, likeJosé Vicente de Freitas,Artur Ivens Ferraz andDomingos Oliveira; over time the finance ministerAntónio Salazar exercised more and more power, Payne 1983, p. 157
45. ^in an array of support mobilisation platforms, likeMocidade Portuguesa or Fundação Nacional para a Alegria no Trabalho,União Nacional was secondary to formation of Salazar regime, with phases of lethargy and re-animation interchanging, António Costa Pinto, ''Salazar’s ‘New State’: The Paradoxes of Hybridization in the Fascist Era, [in:] António Costa Pinto, Aristotle Kallis (eds.),Rethinking Fascism, London 2014, ISBN 9781349480883, p. 165
46. ^the royal regime set upFrontul Renașterii Naționale as the only legal political organization; it was headed by individuals other than the king,Armand Călinescu,Gheorghe Argeșanu andConstantin Argetoianu
47. ^initially Carol II intended to build a royal coalition, but eventually gave up,suspended the constitution and ruled as a royal dictator, Patrick G. Zander,Fascism through History: Culture, Ideology, and Daily Life, London 2020,ISBN 9781440861949, p. 424
48. ^The term limits of theCaptains Regents were maintained during the dictatorship. He hold four terms between 1923 and 1941.
49. ^The fascist government was reinstalled between 23 September 1943 and 20 September 1944.
50. ^until late 1939 the role of head of state was formally with the government; itwas headed by Tiso. Later he assumed the newly created presidential role
51. ^parties of German and Hungarian minorities were allowed to operate
52. ^heads of state changed in line with changing formal position (Lev Kamenev,Yakov Sverdlov,Mikhail Kalinin); prime ministers wereLenin andAlexei Rykov; there were also successive leaders of the communist party, РСДРП, РКП(б) and ВКП(б) likeNikolay Krestinsky,Vyacheslav Molotov andStalin, Communist International headGrigory Zinoviev, plus persons likeLeon Trotsky, who did not go above the rank of a minister
53. ^The introduction ofwar communism and the beginning of a full-scale civil war, after which the Bolsheviks shifted fromsoviet democracy to authoritarian measures and instituted theRed Terror //Шубин. А. В. 1918 год. Революция, кровью омытая, 2019.ISBN 978-5-8291-2317-8
54. ^^ab"Thus, between 1927 and 1929, Stalin isolated and defeated the Rightists to emerge as the individual successor of Lenin." // S. J. Lee, Europe, 1890-1945, p. 267
55. ^The USSR had become a one-party state by the1924 election, but non-communist and opposition candidates were able to run as independents, like during the1929 election
56. ^TheDirectory was appointed as a "collective dictator" on the territories controlled by the anti-Bolsheviks for the lack of the figure of a leader figure (seeШубин. А. В. 1918 год. Революция, кровью омытая, 2019.ISBN 978-5-8291-2317-8 andО. Будницкий. Золото Колчака.ISBN 9785444820087)
57. ^Succeeded byAnton Denikin and laterPyotr Wrangel as commanders-in-chief inSouth Russia and by heads of other regional White governments
58. ^After theGreat Siberian Ice March disentegrated intoSouth Russia,Eastern Okraina andProvisional Priamurye Government
59. ^As leader of theWhite movement
60. ^following the introduction of the1936 Constitution, theCongress of Soviets was replaced with theSupreme Soviet which acted as arubber stamp parliament, and theelectoral system allowing independent candidates as an alternative to the Communist Party was replaced with the one on non-alternative basis (with the Communist Party/Bloc of Communists and Non-Partisans as the only candidate)
61. ^Asamblea Nacional Consultiva was created in 1927, met rarely, and held no political power
62. ^following resignation of Primo de Rivera there was no clear political leader; power was shared betweenAlfonso XIII and prime ministers,Dámaso Berenguer and thenJuan Aznar
63. ^Prior to the formal proclamation of the Spanish State, the territories controlled by the Nationalists were known as the Nationalist Zone (Zona nacional)
64. ^seeNational Defense Junta
65. ^Parties which supported the coup operated until being merged into FET-JONS
66. ^in line with theUnification Decree, the only political organisation permitted to operate wasFET
67. ^exact political system in the so-called Republican zone of Spain evades easy categorization (seeRevisionism (Spain)). "Traditionalist" scholars implicitly associate the wartime Republic with democracy or openly define it as one (see e.g. Martin Blinkhorn,Democracy and Civil War in Spain 1931-1939, London 2008, ISBN 9781134986347, p. 28, or Julian Casanova,The Spanish Civil War, London 2017, ISBN 9781350127586, p. 186). The "Revisionists" refer rather to a multi-current revolutionary regime with no force assuming a clearly dictatorial role, though many - e.g. the Communists or the Anarchists - willing to introduce their own type of dictatorship, Stanley G. Payne,The Spanish Civil War, Cambridge 2012, ISBN 9780521174701, p. 96. In the late 20th centuryJuan Negrín was at times referred to as a dictator, but currently this position is not maintained^{[citation needed]}
68. ^Known supporters of right-wing and conservative views were subject toRed Terror launched by radical groups (Historical Dictionary of the Spanish Civil War, 2013)
69. ^until 1923 there was no formally defined head of state
70. ^following death of Kemal Atatürk the head of state was the president,İsmet İnönü; however, the regime was far from his personal dictatorship, with personal influence of prime ministers (Celâl Bayar,Refik Saydam) and some military
71. ^Lee 2016, p.343
72. ^having staged a self-coup, Alexander initially abolished all political parties. The constitution he imposed in 1931 permitted operations of political parties, Lee 2016, p. 343. Later theYugoslav National Party became the sole ruling party
73. ^following assassination of king Alexander I the role of head of state was assumed by a collegial regency, led byPrince Paul and composed of lesser personalities likeRadenko Stanković andIvo Perović; much power was exercised by the PM,Milan Stojadinović, with other key politicians likeVladko Maček contributing to shaky balance of powers
74. ^see1935 Yugoslavian parliamentary election

Further reading

External links