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European Union–NATO relations

European Union	NATO

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v t e

TheEuropean Union (EU) and theNorth Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) are two main treaty-basedWestern organisations for cooperation between member states, both headquartered inBrussels, Belgium. Their natures are different and they operate in different spheres: NATO is a purely intergovernmental organisation functioning as a military alliance, which serves to implement article 5 of theNorth Atlantic Treaty on collective territorial defence.^[1] The EU on the other hand is a partly supranational and partly intergovernmentalsui generis entity akin to aconfederation^[2][3] that entails wider economic and politicalintegration. Unlike NATO, the EU pursues aforeign policy in its own right—based on consensus, and member states have equipped it with tools in the field of defence and crisis management; theCommon Security and Defence Policy (CSDP)structure.

The memberships of the EU and NATO are distinct, and some EU member states are traditionally neutral on defence issues. The EU and NATO have respectively27 and32 member states, of which 23 are members of both. Another four NATO members are EU applicants—Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Turkey—and another one, the United Kingdom, is aformer EU member. Iceland and Norway have opted to remain outside of the EU, but do participate in theEuropean Single Market as part of theirEuropean Economic Area (EEA) membership. Four non-NATO states are members of the EU: Austria, Cyprus, Ireland, and Malta. Several EU and NATO member states were formerly members of theWarsaw Pact.^[4]

The EU has its own mutual defence clause in Articles 42(7) and 222 of theTreaty on European Union (TEU) and theTreaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), respectively. TheCSDP command and control structure is however much smaller than theNATO Command Structure (NCS), and the extent to which the CSDP should evolve to form a full defence arm for the EU that is able to implement the EU mutual defence clause in its own right is a point of contention. TheUnited Kingdom (UK) had objected to this, when it was still an EU member state. At the UK's insistence in the negotiations leading to theTreaty of Lisbon, Article 42.2 of TEU specified thatNATO shall be the main forum for the implementation of collective self-defence for EU member states that are also NATO members.

The 2002Berlin Plus agreement and 2018 Joint Declaration^[5] provide for cooperation between the EU and NATO, including that NCS resources may be used for the conduct of the EU's CSDP missions.^[6]

Emblems of former and present European and trans-Atlantic command and control structures:Western Union Defence Organisation (WUDO, l., 1948-1952), itsde facto successor: NATO'sSupreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE, m., 1952-present) and the EU'sMilitary Planning and Conduct Capability (MPCC, r., 2017-present).

Premises of former and present European and trans-Atlantic command and control structures: WUDO (l.) inFontainebleau, France, itsde facto successor: NATO's SHAPE (m.) inMons, Belgium, and the EU's MPCC (r.) inBrussels, Belgium.

TheWestern Union, established to implement the 1948Treaty of Brussels signed by Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and the United Kingdom, represents a precursor to both NATO and the EU's defence arm, theCommon Security and Defence Policy (CSDP).WUDO's organisational chart as of November 1948, in which solid and dashed lines indicate control and liaison lines, respectively:^[7]

Since theend of World War II, mostsovereignEuropean countries have entered into treaties and thereby co-operated and harmonised policies (orpooled sovereignty) in an increasing number of areas, in theEuropean integration project or theconstruction of Europe (French:la construction européenne). The following timeline outlines the legal inception of theEuropean Union (EU)—the principal framework for this unification. The EU inherited many of its presentorganizations,institutions, and responsibilities from theEuropean Communities (EC), which were founded in the 1950s in the spirit of theSchuman Declaration.

Legend:   S: signing   F: entry into force   T: termination   E: expiry    de facto supersession   Rel. w/ EC/EU framework:    de facto inside    outside

European Union(EU)

[Cont.]

European Communities(EC)

(Pillar I)

European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or EURATOM)

[Cont.]

/ / /European Coal and Steel Community(ECSC)

(Distr. of competences)

European Economic Community(EEC)

Schengen Rules

European Community (EC)

TREVI

Justice and Home Affairs(JHA,pillar III)

/North Atlantic Treaty Organisation(NATO)

[Cont.]

Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters(PJCC,pillar III)

Anglo-French alliance

[Defence armhanded toNATO]

European Political Co-operation (EPC)

Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP,pillar II)

Western Union (WU)

/Western European Union (WEU)

[Tasks defined following the WEU's 1984reactivationhanded to theEU]

[Social, cultural taskshanded toCoE]

[Cont.]

v t e

Council of Europe(CoE)

Entente Cordiale S: 8 April 1904

Dunkirk Treaty[i] S: 4 March 1947 F: 8 September 1947 E: 8 September 1997

Brussels Treaty[i] S: 17 March 1948 F: 25 August 1948 T: 30 June 2011

London andWashington treaties[i] S: 5 May/4 April 1949 F: 3 August/24 August 1949

Paris treaties:ECSC andEDC[ii] S: 18 April 1951/27 May 1952 F: 23 July 1952/? E: 23 July 2002/—

Protocol Modifying and Completing the Brussels Treaty[i] S: 23 October 1954 F: 6 May 1955

Rome treaties:EEC andEAEC S: 25 March 1957 F: 1 January 1958

WEU-CoE agreement[i] S: 21 October 1959 F: 1 January 1960

Brussels (Merger) Treaty[iii] S: 8 April 1965 F: 1 July 1967

Davignon report S: 27 October 1970

European Council conclusions S: 2 December 1975

Single European Act (SEA) S: 17/28 February 1986 F: 1 July 1987

Schengen Treaty andConvention S: 14 June 1985/19 June 1990 F: 26 March 1995

Maastricht Treaty[iv][v] S: 7 February 1992 F: 1 November 1993

Amsterdam Treaty S: 2 October 1997 F: 1 May 1999

Nice Treaty S: 26 February 2001 F: 1 February 2003

Lisbon Treaty[vi] S: 13 December 2007 F: 1 December 2009

Had its founding treaty not failed to acquire ratification in the French Parliament in 1954, the European Defence Community would have entailed a pan-European military, divided into national components, and had a common budget, common arms, centralized military procurement, and institutions. The EDC would have had an integral link to NATO, forming an autonomous European pillar in the Atlantic alliance.

Following the establishment of the ESDI and the St. Malo declaration,US Secretary of StateMadeleine Albright were among others who voiced concern that an independent European security pillar could undermine NATO, as she put forth the three famous D's:

Our [...] task is working together to develop [the ESDI] within [NATO], which the United States has strongly endorsed. We enthusiastically support any such measures that enhance European capabilities. The United States welcomes a more capable European partner, with modern, flexible military forces capable of putting out fires in Europe's own back yard and working with us through [NATO] to defend our common interests. The key to a successful initiative is to focus on practical military capabilities. Any initiative must avoid preempting [NATO] decision-making byde-linking ESDI from NATO, avoidduplicating existing efforts, and avoiddiscriminating against non-EU members. [...]

TheBerlin Plus agreement enablesEU operations to be planned and conducted at the military strategic and operational level with recourse to assets and capabilities in theNATO Command Structure (NCS). In such an event, an Operational Headquarters (OHQ) would be set up within NATO'sSupreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) in Mons, Belgium. SHAPE is the main headquarters ofAllied Command Operations (ACO).

When the NCS provides the OHQ, theDeputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe (DSACEUR) acts as Operation Commander (OpCdr).

The Berlin Plus agreement requires that the use of NATO assets by the EU is subject to a "right of first refusal", i.e. NATO must first decline to intervene in a given crisis,^[9][10] and contingent on unanimous approval among NATO states, including those outside of the EU. For example, Turkish reservations aboutOperation Concordia using NATO assets delayed its deployment by more than five months.^[11]

TheEuropean External Action Service's (EEAS)Military Staff (EUMS), situated in theKortenberg building in Brussels, has a permanent NATO liaison team and runs a permanent EU cell at NATO'sSupreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) inMons.

The CSDP entailscollective self-defence amongst member states. This responsibility is based on Article 42.7 of TEU, which states that this responsibility does not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain member states, referring to policies of neutrality. SeeNeutral country§European Union for discussion on this subject. According to theArticle 42.7 "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain Member States." Article 42.2 furthermore specifies thatNATO shall be the main forum for the implementation of collective self-defence for EU member states that are also NATO members.

The EU does not have a permanent military command structure. However it has been agreed thatNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) military structures may be used for the conduct of the EU's CSDP missions under theBerlin Plus agreement. TheMilitary Planning and Conduct Capability (MPCC), established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, does however represent the EU's first step in developing a permanent military OHQ. In parallel, the newly establishedEuropean Defence Fund (EDF) marks the first time theEU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects.

SHAPE

MPCC

CPCO

EinsFüKdoBw

EL EU OHQ

ITA-JFHQ

ES OHQ

class=notpageimage|

Location of alternative OHQs for EU-led military operations: EU headquarters, NATO headquarters and national OHQs offered by member states are shown with red, blue and yellow marks, respectively

TheEU command and control (C2) structure is directed by political bodies composed ofmember states' representatives, and generally requires unanimous decisions. As of April 2019:^[12]

Liaison:       Advice and recommendations       Support and monitoring       Preparatory work     

• v
• t
• e

Political strategic level:[5]

ISS

EUCO Pres. (EUCO)

Chain of command

Coordination/support

SatCen

CIVCOM

HR/VP (FAC)

INTCEN

HR/VP (PMG)

HR/VP (PSC)[6]

CEUMC (EUMC)

CMPD

DGEUMS[3] (EUMS)

Military/civilian strategic level:

Dir MPCC[3] (MPCC)

JSCC

Civ OpCdrCPCC[1]

Operational level:

MFCdr[4] (MFHQ)

HoM[1]

Tactical level:

CC[2] Land

CC[2] Air

CC[2] Mar

Other CCs[2]

Forces

Forces

Forces

Forces

¹ In the event of a CSDP Civilian Mission also being in the field, the relations with theCivilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC) and its Civilian Operation Commander (Civ OpCdr), as well as the subordinate Head of Mission (HoM), are coordinated as shown.

² Other Component Commanders (CCs) andservice branches which may be established.

³ The MPCC is part of the EUMS and Dir MPCC is double-hatted as DGEUMS. Unless the MPCC is used as Operation Headquarters (OHQ), either a national OHQ offered by member states or theNATO Command Structure (NCS) would serve this purpose. In the latter instance,Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe (DSACEUR), rather than Dir MPCC, would serve as Operation Commander (OpCdr).

⁴ Unless the MPCC is used as Operation Headquarters (OHQ), the MFCdr would be known as a Force Commander (FCdr), and direct a Force Headquarters (FHQ) rather than a MFHQ. Whereas the MFHQ would act both on the operational and tactical level, the FHQ would act purely on the operational level.

⁵ The political strategic level is not part of the C2 structure per se, but represents the political bodies, with associated support facilities, that determine the missions' general direction. TheCouncil determines the role of theHigh Representative (HR/VP), who serves asVice-President of theEuropean Commission, attendsEuropean Council meetings, chairs theForeign Affairs Council (FAC) and may chair thePolitical and Security Committee (PSC) in times of crisis. The HR/VP proposes and implements CSDP decisions.

⁶ Same composition asCommittee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER) II, which also prepares for the CSDP-related work of the FAC.

SHAPE

    AC

LC

MC

JFCBS

JFCNP

JFC NF

 JSEC

HQ SACT

JWC

JFTC

JALLC

class=notpageimage|

Locations ofNATO's two strategic commands —Allied Command Transformation (ACT) with its subordinate centres (blue marks) andAllied Command Operations (ACO), headquartered atSupreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) and including its subordinate and joint force commands (red marks).

NATO's command structure, under theNorth Atlantic Council and theNATO Military Committee, is split intoAllied Command Operations, responsible for all military operations, andAllied Command Transformation responsible for capability development.

The memberships of the EU and NATO are distinct. The EU and NATO have respectively27 and32 member states, of which 23 states are members of both.

The four EU member states which are not members of NATO (Austria,Cyprus,Ireland andMalta) held positions ofneutrality during the Cold War, which they have since maintained. However, all but Cyprus are members of NATO'sPartnership for Peace. Cyprus is the only EU member state that is neither a full member of NATO nor participates in the Partnership for Peace. Any treaty concerning Cyprus' participation in NATO would likely be blocked byTurkey because of theCyprus dispute.^[13] The2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine reignited debate surrounding NATO membership in several countries, with Finland and Sweden both joining NATO after decades of neutrality.

Of the 32 NATO member states, 30 are European states. The 7 European states which are NATO members, but not EU members, include four states that have applied for EU membership (Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Turkey), as well as the United Kingdom which is aformer EU member. The two others — Iceland and Norway — have opted to remain outside of the EU, however participate in theEU's single market.

Several EU member states were formerly members of the NATO rivalWarsaw Pact.

Comparison of the two main Euro-Atlantic defence organisations

	European Union (in respect of its defence arm, theCommon Security and Defence Policy)		NATO
Mutual defence clause	Article 42.7 of theconsolidated version of the Treaty on European Union: "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain Member States. [...]"		Article 5 of theNorth Atlantic Treaty: "The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them [on their territory] shall be considered an attack against them all and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recognised by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. [...]"
	Political strategic organisation
Highest office	High Representative (HR/VP)		Secretary General
Principal decision-making body	Foreign Affairs Council		North Atlantic Council
Liaison body	European External Action Service		International Staff
Seat	Kortenberg building (Brussels, Belgium)		NATO headquarters (Brussels, Belgium)
	Military strategic organisation
Supreme commander	Director of the Military Planning and Conduct Capability		Supreme Allied Commander Europe
Headquarters	Military Planning and Conduct Capability (Brussels, Belgium)		Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (Mons, Belgium)
Chair ofchiefs of defence assembly	Chairman of the European Union Military Committee		Chair of the NATO Military Committee
Chiefs of defence assembly	European Union Military Committee		NATO Military Committee
Advisory body	European Union Military Staff		International Military Staff
	EU Membership	Permanent Structured Cooperation	NATO Membership
Member states of both the EU and NATO
Belgium	Founder	Founder	Founder
Bulgaria	2007	Founder	2004
Croatia	2013	Founder	2009
Czech Republic	2004	Founder	1999
Denmark	1973	2023	Founder
Estonia	2004	Founder	2004
Finland	1995	Founder	2023
France	Founder	Founder	Founder
Germany	Founder	Founder	1955
Greece	1981	Founder	1952
Hungary	2004	Founder	1999
Italy	Founder	Founder	Founder
Latvia	2004	Founder	2004
Lithuania	2004	Founder	2004
Luxembourg	Founder	Founder	Founder
Netherlands	Founder	Founder	Founder
Poland	2004	Founder	1999
Portugal	1986	Founder	Founder
Romania	2007	Founder	2004
Slovakia	2004	Founder	2004
Slovenia	2004	Founder	2004
Spain	1986	Founder	1982
Sweden	1995	Founder	2024
Non-NATO EU member states
Austria	1995	Founder	Partnership for Peace
Cyprus	2004	Founder	No
Ireland	1973	Founder	Partnership for Peace
Malta	2004	No	Partnership for Peace
Non-EU NATO member states
Albania	Candidate	—	2009
Iceland	No	—	Founder
Montenegro	Candidate	—	2017
North Macedonia	Candidate	—	2020
Norway	Defence Agency agreement	—	Founder
Turkey	Candidate	—	1952
United Kingdom	No	—	Founder
European countries outside both the EU and NATO
Andorra	No	—	No
Armenia	No	—	Individual Partnership Action Plan
Azerbaijan	No	—	Individual Partnership Action Plan
Belarus	No	—	Partnership for Peace
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Candidate	—	Membership Action Plan
Georgia	Candidate	—	Intensified Dialogue
Kazakhstan	No	—	Individual Partnership Action Plan
Kosovo	Applicant / Potential candidate	—	No
Liechtenstein	No	—	No
Moldova	Candidate	—	Individual Partnership Action Plan
Monaco	No	—	No
Russia	No	—	Partnership for Peace
San Marino	No	—	No
Serbia	Candidate	—	Individual Partnership Action Plan
Switzerland	Defence Agency agreement	—	Partnership for Peace
Ukraine	Candidate	—	Intensified Dialogue
Vatican City	No	—	No
NATO member states located in North America, which are therefore ineligible for EU membership
Canada	—	—	Founder
United States	—	—	Founder
Members of NATO'sPartnership for Peace located outside Europe, which are therefore neither eligible for EU nor NATO membership
Kyrgyzstan	—	—	Partnership for Peace
Tajikistan	—	—	Partnership for Peace
Turkmenistan	—	—	Partnership for Peace
Uzbekistan	—	—	Partnership for Peace

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• NATO article on EU relations
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• EDC Treaty (unofficial translation) see pg 2
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• NATO AND THE EUROPEAN UNION: A DEFENSIVE RELATIONSHIP

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