By the 20th century, stylistic unification gradually dissipated while the prominence of popular music greatly increased. Many composers actively avoided past techniques and genres in the lens ofmodernism, with some abandoning tonality in place ofserialism, while others found new inspiration in folk melodies orimpressionist sentiments. After World War II, for the first time audience members valued older music overcontemporary works, a preference which has been catered to by the emergence and widespread availability of commercial recordings.[10] Trends of the mid-20th century to the present day includeNew Simplicity,New Complexity,Minimalism,Spectral music, and more recentlyPostmodern music andPostminimalism. Increasingly global, practitioners from the Americas, Africa and Asia have obtained crucial roles,[3] while symphony orchestras andopera houses now appear across the world.
Both the English termclassical and the German equivalentKlassik developed from the Frenchclassique, itself derived from the Latin wordclassicus, which originally referred to the highestclass ofAncient Roman citizens.[11][n 1] In Roman usage, the term later became a means to distinguish revered literary figures;[11] the Roman authorAulus Gellius commended writers such asDemosthenes andVirgil asclassicus.[13] By theRenaissance, the adjective had acquired a more general meaning: an entry inRandle Cotgrave's 1611A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues is among the earliest extant definitions, translatingclassique as "classical, formall [sic], orderlie, in due or fit ranke; also, approved, authenticall, chiefe, principall".[11][14] The musicologistDaniel Heartz summarizes this into two definitions: 1) a "formal discipline" and 2) a "model of excellence".[11] Like Gellius, later Renaissance scholars who wrote in Latin usedclassicus in reference to writers ofclassical antiquity;[12][n 2] however, this meaning only gradually developed, and was for a while subordinate to the broader classical ideals of formality and excellence.[15] Literature and visual arts—for which substantial Ancient Greek and Roman examples existed—did eventually adopt the term "classical" as relating to classical antiquity, but virtually no music of that time was available to Renaissance musicians, limiting the connection between classical music and theGreco-Roman world.[15][n 3]
It was in 18th-century England that the term 'classical' "first came to stand for a particular canon of works in performance."[15]London had developed a prominent public concert music scene, unprecedented and unmatched by other European cities.[11] The royal court had gradually lost its monopoly on music, in large part from instability that theCommonwealth of England's dissolution and theGlorious Revolution enacted on court musicians.[11][n 4] In 1672, the former court musicianJohn Banister began giving popular public concerts at a London tavern;[n 5] his popularity rapidly inaugurated the prominence of public concerts in London.[19] The conception of "classical"—or more often "ancient music"—emerged, which was still built on the principles of formality and excellence, and according to Heartz "civic ritual, religion and moral activism figured significantly in this novel construction of musical taste".[15] The performance of such music was specialized by theAcademy of Ancient Music and later at theConcerts of Antient Music series, where the work of select 16th- and 17th-century composers was featured,[20] especiallyGeorge Frideric Handel.[15][n 6] In France, the reign ofLouis XIV (r. 1638–1715) saw a cultural renaissance, by the end of which writers such asMolière,Jean de La Fontaine andJean Racine were considered to have surpassed the achievements of classical antiquity.[21] They were thus characterized as "classical", as was the music ofJean-Baptiste Lully (and laterChristoph Willibald Gluck), being designated as "l'opéra française classique".[21] In the rest ofcontinental Europe, the abandonment of defining "classical" as analogous to the Greco-Roman World was slower, primarily because the formation of canonical repertoires was either minimal or exclusive to the upper classes.[15]
Many European commentators of the early 19th century found new unification in their definition of classical music: to juxtapose the older composersWolfgang Amadeus Mozart,Joseph Haydn, and (excluding some of hislater works)Ludwig van Beethoven as "classical" against the emerging style ofRomantic music.[22][23][24] These three composers in particular were grouped into theFirst Viennese School, sometimes called the "Viennese classics",[n 7] a coupling that remains problematic by reason of none of the three being born in Vienna and the minimal time Haydn and Mozart spent in the city.[25] While this was an often expressed characterization, it was not a strict one. In 1879 the composerCharles Kensington Salaman defined the following composers as classical:Bach, Handel, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven,Weber,Spohr andMendelssohn.[26] More broadly, some writers used the term "classical" to generally praise well-regarded outputs from various composers, particularly those who produced many works in an established genre.[11][n 8]
The contemporary understanding of the term "classical music" remains vague and multifaceted.[30][31] Other terms such as "art music", "canonic music", "cultivated music" and "serious music" are largely synonymous.[32] The term "classical music" is often indicated or implied to concern solely the Western world,[33] and conversely, in many academic histories the term "Western music" excludes non-classical Western music.[34][n 9] Another complication lies in that "classical music" is sometimes used to describe non-Western art music exhibiting similar long-lasting and complex characteristics; examples includeIndian classical music,Gamelan music, and various styles of the court of Imperial China (seeyayue for instance).[1] Thus in the later 20th century terms such as "Western classical music" and "Western art music" came in use to address this.[33] The musicologistRalph P. Locke notes that neither term is ideal, as they create an "intriguing complication" when considering "certain practitioners of Western-art music genres who come from non-Western cultures".[36][n 10]
"of, relating to, or characteristic of a formal musical tradition, as distinguished from popular or folk music"
and more specifically, "of or relating to formal European music of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, characterized by harmony, balance, and adherence to established compositional forms".
The last definition concerns what is now termed theClassical period, a specific stylistic era of European music from the second half of the 18th century to the beginning of the 19th century.[37]
The Western classical tradition formally begins with music created by and for the early Christian Church.[38] It is probable that the early Church wished to disassociate itself from the predominantmusic of ancient Greece andRome, as it was a reminder of thepagan religion it hadpersecuted andby which it had been persecuted.[38] As such, it remains unclear as to what extent the music of the Christian Church, and thus Western classical music as a whole, was influenced by precedingancient music.[39] The general attitude towards music was adopted from theAncient Greek andRoman music theorists and commentators.[40][n 11] Just as in Greco-Roman society, music was considered central to education; along with arithmetic, geometry and astronomy, music was included in thequadrivium, the four subjects of the upper division of a standardliberal arts education in theMiddle Ages.[42] This high regard for music was first promoted by the scholarsCassiodorus,Isidore of Seville,[43] and particularlyBoethius,[44] whose transmission and expansion on the perspectives of music fromPythagoras,Aristotle andPlato were crucial in the development of medieval musical thought.[45] However, scholars,medieval music theorists andcomposers regularly misinterpreted or misunderstood the writings of their Greek and Roman predecessors.[46] This was due to the complete absence of surviving Greco-Roman musical works available to medieval musicians,[46][n 12] to the extent that Isidore of Seville (c. 559 – 636) stated "unless sounds are remembered by man, they perish, for they cannot be written down", unaware of thesystematic notational practices of Ancient Greece centuries before.[47][n 13] The musicologistGustave Reese notes, however, that many Greco-Roman texts can still be credited as influential to Western classical music, since medieval musicians regularly read their works—regardless of whether they were doing so correctly.[46]
However, there are some indisputable musical continuations from theancient world.[48] Basic aspects such asmonophony,improvisation and the dominance of text in musical settings are prominent in both early medieval and music of nearly all ancient civilizations.[49] Greek influences in particular include thechurch modes (which were descendants of developments byAristoxenus and Pythagoras),[50] basicacoustical theory frompythagorean tuning,[39] as well as the central function oftetrachords.[51] Ancient Greek instruments such as theaulos (areed instrument) and thelyre (a stringed instrument similar to a smallharp) eventually led to several modern-day instruments of a symphonic orchestra.[52] However,Donald Jay Grout notes that attempting to create a direct evolutionary connection from the ancient music to early medieval is baseless, as it was almost solely influenced by Greco-Roman music theory, not performance or practice.[53]
Manymedieval musical instruments still exist, but in different forms. Medieval instruments included theflute, therecorder and pluckedstring instruments like thelute. As well, early versions of theorgan andfiddle (orvielle) existed. Medieval instruments in Europe had most commonly been used singly, often self accompanied with adrone note, or occasionally in parts. From at least as early as the 13th century through the 15th century there was a division of instruments intohaut (loud, shrill, outdoor instruments) andbas (quieter, more intimate instruments).[58] A number of instruments have roots in Eastern predecessors that wereadopted from the medieval Islamic world.[59] For example, the Arabicrebab is the ancestor of all Europeanbowed string instruments, including thelira,rebec andviolin.[60][61]
The musical Renaissance era lasted from 1400 to 1600. It was characterized by greater use ofinstrumentation, multiple interweaving melodic lines, and the use of earlier forms ofbass instruments. Social dancing became more widespread, so musical forms appropriate to accompanying dance began to standardize. It is in this time that the notation of music on astaff and other elements ofmusical notation began to take shape.[62] This invention made possible the separation of thecomposition of a piece of music from itstransmission; without written music, transmission was oral, and subject to change every time it was transmitted. With amusical score, a work of music could be performed without the composer's presence.[63] The invention of the movable-typeprinting press in the 15th century had far-reaching consequences on the preservation and transmission of music.[64]
An illuminated opening from theChigi codex featuring theKyrie ofOckeghem'sMissa Ecce ancilla Domini
Many instruments originated during the Renaissance; others were variations of, or improvements upon, instruments that had existed previously. Some have survived to the present day; others have disappeared, only to be re-created in order to perform music on period instruments. As in the modern day, instruments may be classified as brass, strings, percussion, and woodwind. Brass instruments in the Renaissance were traditionally played by professionals who were members ofGuilds and they included theslide trumpet, the woodencornet, the valvelesstrumpet and thesackbut. Stringed instruments included theviol, therebec, the harp-likelyre, thehurdy-gurdy, thelute, theguitar, thecittern, thebandora, and theorpharion.Keyboard instruments with strings included theharpsichord and theclavichord. Percussion instruments include thetriangle, theJew's harp, thetambourine, the bells, the rumble-pot, and various kinds of drums. Woodwind instruments included the double-reedshawm (an early member of theoboe family), thereed pipe, thebagpipe, thetransverse flute, therecorder, thedulcian, and thecrumhorn. Simplepipe organs existed, but were largely confined to churches, although there were portable varieties.[65] Printing enabled the standardization of descriptions and specifications of instruments, as well as instruction in their use.[66]
Vocal music in the Renaissance is noted for the flourishing of an increasingly elaboratepolyphonic style. The principal liturgical forms which endured throughout the entire Renaissance period were masses and motets, with some other developments towards the end, especially as composers of sacred music began to adopt secular forms (such as themadrigal) for their own designs. Towards the end of the period, the early dramatic precursors of opera such as monody, themadrigal comedy, and theintermedio are seen. Around 1597, Italian composerJacopo Peri wroteDafne, the first work to be called anopera today. He also composedEuridice, the first opera to have survived to the present day.
Thecommon practice period is typically defined as the era between the formation and the dissolution of common-practicetonality.[citation needed] The term usually spans roughly two-and-a-half centuries, encompassing the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic periods.
Baroque music is characterized by the use of complex tonalcounterpoint and the use of abasso continuo, a continuous bass line. Music became more complex in comparison with the simple songs of all previous periods.[67] The beginnings of thesonata form took shape in thecanzona, as did a more formalized notion oftheme and variations. The tonalities ofmajor and minor as means for managing dissonance andchromaticism in music took full shape.[68]
During the Baroque era, keyboard music played on theharpsichord andpipe organ became increasingly popular, and the violin family of stringed instruments took the form generally seen today. Opera as a staged musical drama began to differentiate itself from earlier musical and dramatic forms, and vocal forms like thecantata andoratorio became more common.[69] For the first time, vocalists began adding ornamentals to the music.[67]
The theories surroundingequal temperament began to be put in wider practice, as it enabled a wider range of chromatic possibilities in hard-to-tune keyboard instruments. AlthoughJ.S. Bach did not use equal temperament, changes in the temperaments from the then-commonmeantone system to various temperaments that made modulation between all keys musically acceptable made possible hisWell-Tempered Clavier.[70]
One major difference between Baroque music and the classical era that followed it is that the types of instruments used in Baroque ensembles were much less standardized. A Baroque ensemble could include one of several different types of keyboard instruments (e.g., pipe organ or harpsichord),[71] additional stringed chordal instruments (e.g., a lute), bowed strings, woodwinds, and brass instruments, and an unspecified number of bass instruments performing the basso continuo,(e.g., a cello, contrabass, viola, bassoon, serpent, etc.).
Vocal oeuvres of the Baroque era included suites such asoratorios andcantatas.[72][73] Secular music was less common, and was typically characterized only by instrumental music. LikeBaroque art,[74] themes were generally sacred and for the purpose of a catholic setting.
Though the term "classical music" includes all Western art music from the medieval era to the 21st century, the Classicalera was the period of Western art music from the 1750s to the early 1820s[75]—the era ofWolfgang Amadeus Mozart,Joseph Haydn, andLudwig van Beethoven.
The Classical era established many of the norms of composition, presentation, and style, and when the piano became the predominant keyboard instrument. Thebasic forces required for anorchestra became somewhat standardized (though they would grow as the potential of a wider array of instruments was developed). Chamber music grew to include ensembles with as many as 8-10 performers forserenades.Opera continued to develop, with regional styles in Italy, France, and German-speaking lands. Theopera buffa, a form of comic opera, rose in popularity. Thesymphony came into its own as a musical form, and the concerto was developed as a vehicle for displays of virtuoso playing skill. Orchestras no longer required aharpsichord, and were often led by the lead violinist (now called theconcertmaster).[76]
Classical era musicians continued to use many of the instruments from the Baroque era, such as the cello, contrabass, recorder, trombone, timpani, fortepiano (the precursor to the modernpiano) and organ. While some Baroque instruments fell into disuse e.g. the theorbo and rackett, many Baroque instruments were changed into the versions still in use today, such as the Baroque violin (which became theviolin), Baroque oboe (which became theoboe) and Baroque trumpet, which transitioned to the regular valved trumpet. During the Classical era, the stringed instruments used in orchestra andchamber music such asstring quartets were standardized as the four instruments which form thestring section of the orchestra: the violin, viola, cello, and double bass. Baroque-era stringed instruments such as fretted, bowedviols were phased out. Woodwinds included thebasset clarinet,basset horn,clarinette d'amour, the Classicalclarinet, thechalumeau, the flute, oboe and bassoon. Keyboard instruments included theclavichord and thefortepiano. While theharpsichord was still used in basso continuo accompaniment in the 1750s and 1760s, it fell out of use at the end of the century. Brass instruments included thebuccin, theophicleide (a replacement for the bassserpent, which was the precursor of thetuba) and thenatural horn.
Wind instruments became more refined in the Classical era. Whiledouble-reed instruments like the oboe andbassoon became somewhat standardized in the Baroque, theclarinet family ofsingle reeds was not widely used until Mozart expanded its role in orchestral, chamber, and concerto settings.[77]
The music of theRomantic era, from roughly the first decade of the 19th century to the early 20th century, was characterized by increased attention to an extended melodic line, as well as expressive and emotional elements, parallelingromanticism in other art forms. Musical forms began to break from the Classical era forms (even as those were being codified), with free-form pieces likenocturnes,fantasias, andpreludes being written where accepted ideas about the exposition and development of themes were ignored or minimized.[78] The music became more chromatic, dissonant, and tonally colorful, with tensions (with respect to accepted norms of the older forms) about key signatures increasing.[79] Theart song (orLied) came to maturity in this era, as did the epic scales ofgrand opera, ultimately transcended byRichard Wagner'sRing cycle.[80]
In the 19th century, musical institutions emerged from the control of wealthy patrons, as composers and musicians could construct lives independent of the nobility. Increasing interest in music by the growing middle classes throughout western Europe spurred the creation of organizations for the teaching, performance, and preservation of music. The piano, which achieved its modern construction in this era (in part due to industrial advances inmetallurgy) became widely popular with the middle class, whose demands for the instrument spurred many piano builders. Many symphony orchestras date their founding to this era.[79] Some musicians and composers were the stars of the day; some, likeFranz Liszt andNiccolò Paganini, fulfilled both roles.[81]
European cultural ideas and institutions began to follow colonial expansion into other parts of the world. There was also a rise, especially toward the end of the era, ofnationalism in music (echoing, in some cases, political sentiments of the time), as composers such asEdvard Grieg,Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, andAntonín Dvořák echoed traditional music of their homelands in their compositions.[82]
In the Romantic era, the modernpiano, with a more powerful, sustained tone and a wider range took over from the more delicate-sounding fortepiano. In the orchestra, the existing Classical instruments and sections were retained (string section, woodwinds, brass, and percussion), but these sections were typically expanded to make a fuller, bigger sound. For example, while a Baroque orchestra may have had two double bass players, a Romantic orchestra could have as many as ten. "As music grew more expressive, the standard orchestral palette just wasn't rich enough for many Romantic composers."[83]
The families of instruments used, especially in orchestras, grew larger; a process that climaxed in the early 20th century with very large orchestras used by late romantic and modernist composers. A wider array of percussion instruments began to appear. Brass instruments took on larger roles, as the introduction ofrotary valves made it possible for them to play a wider range of notes. The size of the orchestra (typically around 40 in the Classical era) grew to be over 100.[79]Gustav Mahler's 1906Symphony No. 8, for example, has been performed with over 150 instrumentalists and choirs of over 400.[84] New woodwind instruments were added, such as thecontrabassoon,bass clarinet andpiccolo and new percussion instruments were added, includingxylophones,snare drums,celestas (a bell-like keyboard instrument),bells, andtriangles,[83] largeorchestral harps, and evenwind machines forsound effects.Saxophones appear in some scores from the late 19th century onwards, usually featured as a solo instrument rather than as an integral part of the orchestra.
TheWagner tuba, a modified member of the horn family, appears inRichard Wagner's cycleDer Ring des Nibelungen. It also has a prominent role inAnton Bruckner'sSymphony No. 7 in E Major and is also used in several late romantic and modernist works by Richard Strauss,Béla Bartók, and others.[85] Cornets appear regularly in 19th century scores, alongside trumpets which were regarded as less agile, at least until the end of the century.
Concept art for the 1913 production of Stravinsky'sThe Rite of Spring. Many early 20th century composers such as Mahler, Sibelius and Vaughan Williams were heavily influenced by the forces of nature.
At the turn of the century, music was characteristically lateromantic in style with its expressive melodies, complex harmonies, and expansive forms. This era was marked by the works of several composers who pushed forwardpost-romanticsymphonic writing. Composers such asGustav Mahler andRichard Strauss continued to develop the western classical tradition with expansive symphonies and operas, while the likes ofJean Sibelius andVaughan Williams infused their compositions with nationalistic elements and influences from folk songs.Sergei Prokofiev began in this tradition but soon ventured into modernist territories. At the same time, the impressionist movement, spearheaded byClaude Debussy, was being developed in France, withMaurice Ravel as another notable pioneer.[86]
Modernist classical music encompasses many styles of composition that can be characterised as post romantic, impressionist, expressionist, and neoclassical. Modernism marked an era when many composers rejected certain values of the common practice period, such as traditional tonality, melody, instrumentation, and structure.[87] Some music historians regard musical modernism as an era extending from about 1890 to 1930.[88][89] Others consider that modernism ended with one or the other of the two world wars.[90] Still other authorities claim that modernism is not associated with any historical era, but rather is "anattitude of the composer; a living construct that can evolve with the times".[91] Despite its decline in the last third of the 20th century, there remained at the end of the century an active core of composers who continued to advance the ideas and forms of modernism, such asPierre Boulez,Pauline Oliveros,Toru Takemitsu,George Benjamin,Jacob Druckman,Brian Ferneyhough,George Perle,Wolfgang Rihm,Richard Wernick,Richard Wilson, andRalph Shapey.[92]
Two musical movements that were dominant during this time were theimpressionist beginning around 1890 and theexpressionist that started around 1908. It was a period of diverse reactions in challenging and reinterpreting older categories of music, innovations that lead to new ways of organizing and approaching harmonic, melodic, sonic, and rhythmic aspects of music, and changes in aesthetic worldviews in close relation to the larger identifiable period ofmodernism in the arts of the time. The operative word most associated with it is "innovation".[93] Its leading feature is a "linguistic plurality", which is to say that no singlemusic genre ever assumed a dominant position.[94]
The orchestra continued to grow during the early years modernist era, peaking in the first two decades of the 20th century. Saxophones that appeared only rarely during the 19th century became more commonly used as supplementary instruments, but never became core members of the orchestra. While appearing only as featured solo instruments in some works, for exampleMaurice Ravel's orchestration ofModest Mussorgsky'sPictures at an Exhibition andSergei Rachmaninoff'sSymphonic Dances, the saxophone is included in other works such asSergei Prokofiev'sRomeo and Juliet Suites 1 and 2 and many other works as a member of the orchestral ensemble. In some compositions such as Ravel'sBoléro, two or more saxophones of different sizes are used to create an entire section like the other sections of the orchestra. Theeuphonium is featured in a few lateRomantic and20th century works, usually playing parts marked "tenor tuba", includingGustav Holst'sThe Planets, andRichard Strauss'sEin Heldenleben.
Postmodern music is a period of music that began as early as 1930 according to some authorities.[88][89] It shares characteristics withpostmodernist art – that is, art that comes after and reacts againstmodernism.
Some other authorities have more or less equated postmodern music with the "contemporary music" composed well after 1930, from the late 20th century through to the early 21st century.[95][96] Some of the diverse movements of the postmodern/contemporary era include the neoromantic, neomedieval, minimalist, and post minimalist.
Contemporary classical music at the beginning of the 21st century was often considered to include all post-1945 musical forms.[97] A generation later, this term now properly refers to the music of today written by composers who are still alive; music that came into prominence in the mid-1970s. It includes different variations ofmodernist,postmodern,neoromantic, andpluralist music.[92]
Performers who have studied classical music extensively are said to be "classically trained". This training may come from private lessons from instrument or voice teachers or from completion of a formal program offered by a Conservatory, college or university, such as aBachelor of Music orMaster of Music degree (which includes individual lessons from professors). In classical music, "...extensive formal music education and training, often to postgraduate [Master's degree] level" is required.[98]
Performance of classical music repertoire requires a proficiency insight-reading andensemble playing,harmonic principles, strongear training (to correct and adjust pitches by ear), knowledge ofperformance practice (e.g., Baroque ornamentation), and a familiarity with the style/musical idiom expected for a given composer or musical work (e.g., a Brahms symphony or a Mozart concerto).[citation needed]
The key characteristic of European classical music that distinguishes it frompopular music,folk music, and some other classical music traditions such asIndian classical music, is that the repertoire tends to be written down inmusical notation, creating a musical part orscore. This score typically determines details of rhythm, pitch, and, where two or more musicians (whether singers or instrumentalists) are involved, how the various parts are coordinated. The written quality of the music has enabled a high level of complexity within them:fugues, for instance, achieve a remarkable marriage of boldly distinctive melodic lines weaving incounterpoint yet creating a coherentharmonic logic. The use of written notation also preserves a record of the works and enables Classical musicians to perform music from many centuries ago.
Although classical music in the 2000s has lost most of its tradition formusical improvisation, from the Baroque era to the Romantic era, there are examples of performers who could improvise in the style of their era. In the Baroque era, organ performers would improvisepreludes, keyboard performers playingharpsichord would improvisechords from thefigured bass symbols beneath the bass notes of the basso continuo part and both vocal and instrumental performers would improvisemusical ornaments.[99]Johann Sebastian Bach was particularly noted for his complex improvisations.[100] During the Classical era, the composer-performerWolfgang Amadeus Mozart was noted for his ability to improvise melodies in different styles.[101] During the Classical era, some virtuoso soloists would improvise thecadenza sections of a concerto. During the Romantic era,Ludwig van Beethoven would improvise at the piano.[102]
Numerous examples show influence in the opposite direction, including popular songs based on classical music, the use to whichPachelbel's Canon has been put since the 1970s, and the musicalcrossover phenomenon, where classical musicians have achieved success in the popular music arena.[105] Inheavy metal, a number oflead guitarists (playingelectric guitar), includingRitchie Blackmore andRandy Rhoads,[106] modeled their playing styles on Baroque or Classical-era instrumental music.[107]
Composers of classical music have often made use offolk music (music created by musicians who are commonly not classically trained, often from a purely oral tradition). Some composers, likeDvořák andSmetana,[108] have used folk themes to impart a nationalist flavor to their work, while others likeBartók have used specific themes lifted whole from their folk-music origins.[109]Khachaturian widely incorporated into his work the folk music of his nativeArmenia, but also other ethnic groups of the Middle East and Eastern Europe.[110][111]
During the 1990s, several research papers and popular books wrote on what came to be called the "Mozart effect": an observed temporary, small elevation of scores onspatial reasoning tests as a result of listening to Mozart's music. The approach has been popularized in a book by Don Campbell, and is based on an experiment published inNature suggesting that listening to Mozart temporarily boosted students'IQ by 8 to 9 points.[116] This popularized version of the theory was expressed succinctly by theNew York Times music columnistAlex Ross: "researchers... have determined that listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter."[117] Promoters marketed CDs claimed to induce the effect. Florida passed a law requiring toddlers in state-run schools to listen to classical music every day, and in 1998 the governor of Georgia budgeted $105,000 per year to provide every child born in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. One of the co-authors of the original studies of the Mozart effect commented "I don't think it can hurt. I'm all for exposing children to wonderful cultural experiences. But I do think the money could be better spent onmusic education programs."[118]
^The Ancient Roman citizenship classes in question were derived from the guidelines set forth by the legendary kingServius Tullius in theServian constitution.[12]
^This is why theNeoclassicism movement of the mid 18th-century was widespread in fields such as architecture and painting but not music.[16]
^Before the beginning of the 18th-century, there was a brief flowering of court music following theStuart Restoration.[11] Composers such asMatthew Locke and laterHenry Purcell found considerable success,[17] particularly with the popular courtmasques.[18]
^The earliest use of the term "classical music" inEnglish literature given by theOxford English Dictionary (OED) is in the 1829 diary of English musicianVincent Novello, who said "This is the place I should come to every Sunday when I wished to hear classical music correctly and judiciously performed".[27] However, this is predated by at least 9 years from the title of the English writerJohn Feltham Danneley's 1820Introduction to the Elementary Principles of Thorough Bass and Classical Music.[28][29]
^In addition to the title ofTaruskin 2005, see also the titles ofGrout 1973,Hanning 2002 andStolba 1998, all of which include the term "Western music" but essentially exclude non-classical music in the Western world.Grout 1973 was first published in 1960, and it was not until the fifth edition prepared byClaude V. Palisca in 1996 that any information onjazz andpopular music was included.[35]
^The musicologistRalph P. Locke cites composerTan Dun as an example, and notes the title of a 2004 publication,Locating East Asia in Western Art Music.[36] See also the title ofBarone, Joshua (23 July 2021)."Asian Composers Reflect on Careers in Western Classical Music".The New York Times. Archived fromthe original on 28 December 2021.Burkholder, Grout & Palisca 2014, p. 1009 note that "We may well wonder whether the term "Western [classical] music" is still appropriate when Western culture has spread around the world, and some of the most practices performers and interesting new composers come from China, Japan and Korea. Given its global reach, it may be time to rename this tradition, but as eclectic and diverse as it has become, its roots are still in Western culture reaching back through Europe to ancient Greece".
^From all available evidence, it appears that no, or few, significant musical developments can be credited to Ancient Rome, who largely adopted the practices of their Ancient Greek predecessors.[41]
^MusicologistDonald Jay Grout notes that even by the 20th century there were only fragments and a few more sizable examples of such Greco-Roman music that survive.[38]
^The entirety of early medieval Europe may not have been without a notional system for music, seeGampel 2012, who argues against the traditional conclusion of Isidore of Seville's remark.
^Burkholder, J. Peter (2009–2010). "Changing the Stories We Tell: Repertoires, Narratives, Materials, Goals, and Strategies in Teaching Music History".College Music Symposium. 49/50: 120.JSTOR41225238.
^Sachs, Curt (1940),The History of Musical Instruments, Dover Publications, p. 260,ISBN978-0-486-45265-4{{citation}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Yeomans, David (2006).Piano Music of the Czech Romantics: A Performer's Guide. Indiana University Press. p. 2.ISBN978-0-253-21845-2.
^Stevens, Haley; Gillies, Malcolm (1993).The Life and Music of Béla Bartók. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 129.ISBN978-0-19-816349-7.
^Bakst, James (1977). "Khachaturyan".A History of Russian-Soviet Music (Reprint ed.). Westport, Connecticut:Greenwood Press. p. 336.ISBN0837194229.
^Rosenberg, Kenyon C. (1987). "Khachaturian, Aram".A Basic Classical and Operatic Recordings Collection for Libraries. Metuchen, New Jersey:Scarecrow Press. p. 112.ISBN9780810820418.
^Vancour, Shawn (March 2009). "Popularizing the Classics: Radio's Role in the Music Appreciation Movement 1922–34".Media, Culture & Society.31 (2): 19.doi:10.1177/0163443708100319.S2CID144331723.
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