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Etruscan art was produced by theEtruscan civilization incentral Italy between the 10th and 1st centuries BC. From around 750 BC it was heavily influenced byGreek art, which was imported by the Etruscans, but always retained distinct characteristics. Particularly strong in this tradition were figurative sculpture in terracotta (especially life-size onsarcophagi or temples), wall-painting andmetalworking especially in bronze. Jewellery andengraved gems of high quality were produced.[2]
Etruscan sculpture in cast bronze was famous and widely exported, but relatively few large examples have survived (the material was too valuable, and recycled later). In contrast to terracotta and bronze, there was relatively little Etruscan sculpture in stone, despite the Etruscans controlling fine sources of marble, includingCarrara marble, which seems not to have been exploited until the Romans.
The great majority of survivals came from tombs, which were typically crammed withsarcophagi andgrave goods, and terracotta fragments of architectural sculpture, mostly around temples. Tombs have produced all thefresco wall-paintings, which show scenes of feasting and some narrative mythological subjects.
Bucchero wares in black were the early and native styles of fine Etruscan pottery. There was also a tradition of elaborateEtruscan vase painting, which sprang from its Greek equivalent; the Etruscans were the main export market forGreek vases. Etruscan temples were heavily decorated with colourfully painted terracottaantefixes and other fittings, which survive in large numbers where the wooden superstructure has vanished. Etruscan art was strongly connected toreligion; the afterlife was of major importance in Etruscan art.[3]
The Etruscans emerged from theVillanovan culture. Due to the proximity and/or commercial contact toEtruria, other ancient cultures influenced Etruscan art during theOrientalizing period, such asGreece,Phoenicia,Egypt,Assyria and theMiddle East. The Romans would later come to absorb theEtruscan culture into theirs but would also be greatly influenced by them and their art.
Etruscan art is usually divided into a number of periods:
The Etruscans were very accomplished sculptors, with many surviving examples interracotta, both small-scale and monumental, bronze, andalabaster. However, there is very little in stone, in contrast to the Greeks and Romans. Terracotta sculptures from temples have nearly all had to be reconstructed from a mass of fragments, but sculptures from tombs, including the distinctive form ofsarcophagus tops with near life-size reclining figures, have usually survived in good condition, although the painting on them has usually suffered. Small bronze pieces, often including sculptural decoration, became an important industry in later periods, exported to the Romans and others. See the "Metalwork" section below for these, and "Funerary art" for tomb art.
The famous bronze "Capitoline Wolf" in theCapitoline Museum,Rome, was long regarded as Etruscan, its age is now disputed, it may actually date from the 12th century.
TheApollo of Veii is a good example of the mastery with which Etruscan artists produced these large art pieces. It was made, along with others, to adorn the temple atPortanaccio's roof line. Although its style is reminiscent of the GreekKroisos Kouros, having statues on the top of the roof was an original Etruscan idea.[11]
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The Etruscan paintings that have survived are almost all wallfrescoes from tombs, mainly located inTarquinia, and dating from roughly 670 BC to 200 BC, with the peak of production between about 520 and 440 BC. The Greeks very rarely painted their tombs in the equivalent period, with rare exceptions such as theTomb of the Diver inPaestum and southern Italy, and theMacedonian royal tombs atVergina. The whole tradition of Greek painting on walls and panels, arguably the form of art that Greek contemporaries considered their greatest, is almost entirely lost, giving the Etruscan tradition, which undoubtedly drew much from Greek examples, an added importance, even if it does not approach the quality and sophistication of the best Greek masters. It is clear from literary sources that temples, houses and other buildings also had wall-paintings, but these have all been lost, like their Greek equivalents.[12]
The Etruscan tombs, which housed the remains of whole lineages, were apparently sites for recurrent family rituals, and the subjects of paintings probably have a more religious character than might at first appear. A few detachable painted terracotta panels have been found in tombs, up to about a metre tall, and fragments in city centres.[13]
The frescoes are created by applying paint on top of fresh plaster, so that when the plaster dries the painting becomes part of the plaster, and consequently an integral part of the wall. Colours were created from ground up minerals of different colours and were then mixed to the paint. Fine brushes were made of animal hair.
From the mid 4th century BCchiaroscuro modelling began to be used to portray depth and volume.[14] Sometimes scenes of everyday life are portrayed, but more often traditional mythological scenes, usually recognisable fromGreek mythology, which the Etruscans seem largely to have adopted.Symposium scenes are common, and sport and hunting scenes are found. The depiction of human anatomy never approaches Greek levels. The concept of proportion does not appear in any surviving frescoes and we frequently find portrayals of animals or men out of proportion. Various types of ornament cover much of the surface between figurative scenes.
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Etruscan vase paintings were produced from the 7th through the 4th centuries BC, and is a major element in Etruscan art. It was strongly influenced byGreek vase painting, followed the main trends in style, especially those ofAthens, over the period, but lagging behind by some decades. The Etruscans used the same techniques, and largely the same shapes. Both theblack-figure vase painting and the laterred-figure vase painting techniques were used. The subjects were also very often drawn from Greek mythology in later periods.
Besides being producers in their own right, the Etruscans were the main export market for Greek pottery outside Greece, and some Greek painters probably moved to Etruria, where richly decorated vases were a standard element of grave inventories. It has been suggested that many or most elaborately painted vases were specifically bought to be used in burials, as a substitute, cheaper and less likely to attract robbers, for the vessels in silver and bronze that the elite would have used in life.
More fully characteristic of Etruscan ceramic art are the burnished, unglazedbucchero terracotta wares, rendered black in a reducing kiln deprived of oxygen. This was an Etruscan development based on the pottery techniques of the Villanovan period. Often decorated with white lines, these may have eventually represented a traditional "heritage" style kept in use specially for tomb wares.
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A few large terracottapinakes or plaques, much larger than are typical in Greek art, have been found in tombs, some forming a series that creates in effect a portable wall-painting. The "Boccanera" tomb at the Banditaccianecropolis atCerveteri contained five panels almost a metre high set round the wall, which are now in theBritish Museum. Three of them form a single scene, apparently theJudgement of Paris, while the other two flanked the inside of the entrance, withsphinxes acting astomb guardians. They date to about 560 BC. Fragments of similar panels have been found in city centre sites, presumably from temples, elite houses and other buildings, where the subjects include scenes of everyday life.[16]
The Etruscans were masters of bronze-working as shown by the many outstanding examples in museums, and from accounts of the statues sent to Rome after their conquest.[17] According to Pliny, the Romans looted 2,000 bronze statues from the city ofVolsinii alone after capturing it.[18]
TheMonteleone chariot is one of the finest examples of large bronzework and is the best-preserved and most complete of the surviving works.
The Etruscans had a strong tradition of working inbronze from very early times, and their small bronzes were widely exported. Apart from cast bronze, the Etruscans were also skilled at the engraving of cast pieces with complex linear images, whose lines were filled with a white material to highlight them; in modern museum conditions with this filling lost, and the surface inevitably somewhat degraded, they are often much less striking and harder to read than would have been the case originally. This technique was mostly applied to the roundish backs of polishedbronze mirrors and to the sides ofcistae. A major centre for cista manufacture wasPraeneste, which somewhat like early Rome was an Italic-speaking town in the Etruscan cultural sphere.[19] Some mirrors, or mirror covers (used to protect the mirror's reflective surface) are in a lowrelief.
The Etruscans excelled in portraying humans. Throughout their history they used two sets of burial practices:cremation andinhumation.[20] Cinerary urns (for cremation) and sarcophagi (for inhumation) have been found together in the same tomb showing that throughout generations, both forms were used at the same time.[21]In the 7th century they started depicting human heads on canopic urns and when they started burying their dead in the late 6th century they did so in terracotta sarcophagi.[22] These sarcophagi were decorated with an image of the deceased reclining on the lid alone or sometimes with a spouse. The Etruscans invented the custom of placing figures on the lid which later influenced the Romans to do the same.[22] Funerary urns that were like miniature versions of the sarcophagi, with a reclining figure on the lid, became widely popular in Etruria.
The Hellenistic period funerary urns were generally made in two pieces. The top lid usually depicted a banqueting man or woman (but not always) and the container part was either decorated in relief in the front only or, on more elaborate stone pieces, carved on its sides.[23] During this period, the terracotta urns were being mass-produced using clay in Northern Etruria (specifically in and aroundChiusi).[24] Often the scenes decorated in relief on the front of the urn were depicting generic Greek influenced scenes.[25] The production of these urns did not require skilled artists and so what we are left with is often mediocre, unprofessional art, made en masse.[26] However the colour choices on the urns offer evidence as to dating, as colours used changed over time.
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Etruscan art was often religious in character and, hence, strongly connected to the requirements ofEtruscan religion. The Etruscan afterlife was negative, in contrast to the positive view inancient Egypt where it was but a continuation of earthly life, or the confident relations with the gods as inancient Greece.[citation needed] Roman interest in Etruscan religion centred on their methods ofdivination and propitiating and discovering the will of the gods, rather than the gods themselves, which may have distorted the information that has come down to us.[27] Most remains of Etruscanfunerary art have been found in excavations of cemeteries (as atCerveteri,Tarquinia,Populonia,Orvieto,Vetulonia,Norchia), meaning that what we see of Etruscan art is primarily dominated by depictions of religion and in particular thefunerary cult, whether or not that is a true reflection of Etruscan art as a whole.
Etruscan tombs were heavily looted from early on, initially for precious metals. From theRenaissance onwards Etruscan objects, especially painted vases and sarcophagi, were keenly collected. Many were exported before this was forbidden, and most major museum collections of classical art around the world have good selections. But the major collections remain in Italian museums in Rome, Florence, and other cities in areas that were formerly Etruscan, which include the results ofmodern archaeology.
Major collections in Italy include theNational Etruscan Museum (Italian:Museo Nazionale Etrusco) in theVilla Giulia in Rome,National Archaeological Museum in Florence,Vatican Museums,Tarquinia National Museum, and theArcheological Civic Museum inBologna, as well as more local collections near important sites such asCerveteri,Orvieto andPerugia. Some painted tombs, now emptied of their contents, can be viewed at necropoli such as Cerveteri.
in 2021/22, there was a major exhibition of Etruscan art at theMARQ Archaeological Museum of Alicante,Spain.[28] The exhibition,Etruscans: The Dawn of Rome, featured a large number of items on loan from the National Archaeological Museum, Florence and the Guarnacci Etruscan Museum inVolterra.[29]
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The facial features, however, are not likely to constitute a true portrait, but rather partake of a formula for representing the male in Etruria in Archaic art. It has been observed that the formula used—with the face in profile, showing almond-shaped eyes, a large nose, and a domed up profile of the top of the head—has its parallels in images from the eastern Mediterranean. But these features may show only artistic conventions and are therefore of limited value for determining ethnicity.
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