This article contains severalpatronymic names rather than family names. These persons are addressed by theirgiven name, and not by theirinherited name.
Anatomically modern humans emerged from modern-day Ethiopia.[12][13][14][15][16] In 980 BC, the Kingdom ofD'mt extended its realm over Eritrea and the northern region of Ethiopia, while theKingdom of Aksum maintained a unified civilization in the region for 900 years. Christianity was embraced by the kingdom in 330,[17] and Islam arrived by thefirst Hijra in 615.[18] After the collapse of Aksum in 960, theZagwe dynasty ruled the north-central parts of Ethiopia until being overthrown byYekuno Amlak in 1270, inaugurating theEthiopian Empire and theSolomonic dynasty, claimed descent from the biblicalSolomon andQueen of Sheba under their sonMenelik I. By the 14th century, the empire had grown in prestige through territorial expansion and fighting against adjacent territories; most notably, theEthiopian–Adal War (1529–1543) contributed to fragmentation of the empire, which ultimately fell under a decentralization known asZemene Mesafint in the mid-18th century.EmperorTewodros II endedZemene Mesafint at the beginning of his reign in 1855, marking the reunification and modernization of Ethiopia.[19]
Tradition holds that the name Ethiopia (ኢትዮጵያ) comes from the name of the first King of Ethiopia, Ethiop, orEthiopis.
Ayele Berkerie explains:
According to an Ethiopian tradition, the term Ethiopia is derived from the word Ethiopis, a name of the Ethiopian king, the seventh in the ancestral lines. Metshafe Aksum or the Ethiopian Book of Aksum identifies Itiopis as the twelfth king of Ethiopia and the father of Aksumawi. The Ethiopians pronounce Ethiopia እትዮጵያ with a Sades or the sixth sound እ as in incorporate and the graph ጰ has no equivalent in English or Latin graphs. Ethiopis is believed to be the twelfth direct descendant of Adam. His father is identified as Kush, while his grandfather is known as Kam.[28]
In the 15th-century Ge'ezBook of Axum, the name is ascribed to a legendary individual calledItyopp'is. He was an extra-biblical son ofCush, son of Ham, said to have founded the city ofAxum.[29]
TheGreek name Αἰθιοπία (fromΑἰθίοψ, "an Ethiopian") is a compound word, later explained as derived from the Greek wordsαἴθω andὤψ (eithō "I burn" +ōps "face"). According to theLiddell-Scott Jones Greek-English Lexicon, the designation properly translates asburnt-face in noun form andred-brown in adjectival form.[30] The historianHerodotus used the appellation to denote those parts of Africa south of theSahara that were then known within theEcumene (habitable world).[31] The earliest mention of the term is found in the works ofHomer, where it is used to refer to two people groups, one in Africa and one in the east from eastern Turkey to India.[32] This Greek name was borrowed intoAmharic as ኢትዮጵያ,ʾĪtyōṗṗyā.
InGreco-Roman epigraphs,Aethiopia was a specific toponym for ancientNubia.[33] At least as early asc. 850,[34] the nameAethiopia also occurs in many translations of theOld Testament in allusion to Nubia. The ancientHebrew texts identify Nubia instead asKush.[35] However, in theNew Testament, the Greek term Aithiops does occur, referring to a servant of theKandake, the queen of Kush.[36]
Following the Hellenic and biblical traditions, theMonumentum Adulitanum, a 3rd-century inscription belonging to theAksumite Empire, indicates that Aksum's ruler governed an area that was flanked to the west by the territory of Ethiopia and Sasu. The Aksumite KingEzana eventually conquered Nubia the following century, and the Aksumites thereafter appropriated the designation "Ethiopians" for their own kingdom. In theGe'ez version of the Ezana inscription, Aἰθίοπες is equated with the unvocalizedḤbšt andḤbśt (Ḥabashat), and denotes for the first time the highland inhabitants of Aksum. This newdemonym was subsequently rendered asḥbs ('Aḥbāsh) inSabaic and asḤabasha inArabic.[33] Derivatives of this are used in some languages that use loanwords from Arabic, for example inMalayHabsyah.[citation needed]
In English, and generally outside of Ethiopia, the country was historically known asAbyssinia. This toponym was derived from the Latinized form of the ancientHabash.[37]
Several important finds have propelled Ethiopia and the surrounding region to the forefront of palaeontology. The oldesthominid discovered to date in Ethiopia is the 4.2 million-year-oldArdipithecus ramidus (Ardi) found byTim D. White in 1994.[38] The most well-known hominid discovery isAustralopithecus afarensis (Lucy). Known locally asDinkinesh, the specimen was found in theAwash Valley ofAfar Region in 1974 byDonald Johanson, and is one of the most complete and best-preserved adultAustralopithecine fossils ever uncovered. Lucy's taxonomic name refers to the region where the discovery was made. This hominid is estimated to have lived 3.2 million years ago.[39][40][41]
Ethiopia is also considered one of the earliest sites of the emergence ofanatomically modern humans,Homo sapiens. The oldest of these local fossil finds, theOmo remains, were excavated in the southwesternOmo Kibish area and have been dated to theMiddle Paleolithic, around 200,000 years ago.[42] Additionally, skeletons ofHomo sapiens idaltu were found at a site in theMiddle Awash valley. Dated to approximately 160,000 years ago, they may represent an extinct subspecies ofHomo sapiens, or the immediate ancestors of anatomically modern humans.[43] ArchaicHomo sapiens fossils excavated at theJebel Irhoud site in Morocco have since been dated to an earlier period, about 300,000 years ago,[44] while Omo-Kibish I (Omo I) from southern Ethiopia is the oldest anatomically modernHomo sapiens skeleton currently known (196 ± 5 kya).[45]
According to some anthropologists, the firstAfroasiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuingNeolithic era from the family's proposedurheimat ("original homeland") in theNile Valley,[46] or theNear East.[47] The majority of scholars today propose that the Afroasiatic family developed in northeast Africa because of the higher diversity of lineages in that region, a telltale sign of linguistic origin.[48][49][50]
In 2019, archaeologists discovered a 30,000-year-oldMiddle Stone Age rock shelter at theFincha Habera site inBale Mountains at an elevation of 3,469 metres (11,381 feet) above sea level. At this high altitude, humans are susceptible both tohypoxia and to extreme weather. According to a study published in the journalScience, this dwelling is proof of the earliest permanent human occupation at high altitude yet discovered. Thousands of animal bones, hundreds of stone tools, and ancient fireplaces were discovered, revealing a diet that featured giantmole rats.[51][52][53][54][55][56][57]
Evidence of some of the earliest known stone-tipped projectile weapons (a characteristic tool ofHomo sapiens), the stone tips of javelins or throwing spears, were discovered in 2013 at the Ethiopian site ofGademotta, which date to around 279,000 years ago.[58] In 2019, additional Middle Stone Age projectile weapons were found at Aduma, dated 100,000–80,000 years ago, in the form of points considered likely to belong to darts delivered by spear throwers.[59]
In 980 BC,Dʿmt was established in present-dayEritrea and the northern part of Ethiopia in the Tigray region, and is widely believed to be the successor state toPunt. This polity's capital was located atYeha in what is now northern Ethiopia. Most modern historians consider this civilization to be a native Ethiopian one, although in earlier times many suggested it wasSabaean-influenced because of the latter's hegemony of theRed Sea.[60]
Other scholars regard Dʿmt as the result of a union of Afroasiatic-speaking cultures of the Cushitic and Semitic branches; namely, localAgaw peoples and Sabaeans from Southern Arabia. However,Ge'ez, the ancient Semitic language of Ethiopia, is thought to have developed independently from theSabaean language. As early as 2000 BC, other Semitic speakers were living in Ethiopia and Eritrea where Ge'ez developed.[61][62] Sabaean influence is now thought to have been minor, limited to a few localities, and disappearing after a few decades or a century. It may have been a trading or military colony in alliance with the Ethiopian civilization of Dʿmt or some other proto-Axumite state.[60]
After the fall of Dʿmt during the 4th century BC, the Ethiopian plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms. In the 1st century AD, theKingdom of Aksum emerged in what is now Tigray Region and Eritrea. According to the medievalBook of Axum, the kingdom's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush.[29] Aksum would later at times extend its rule into Yemen on the other side of the Red Sea.[63] The Persian prophetMani listed Axum with Rome, Persia, and China as one of the four great powers of his era, during the 3rd century.[64] It is also believed that there was a connection between Egyptian and Ethiopian churches. There is faint evidence that the Aksumites were associated with theQueen of Sheba, via their royal inscription.[65]
Around 316 AD,Frumentius and his brother Edesius fromTyre accompanied their uncle on a voyage to Ethiopia. When the vessel stopped at a Red Sea port, the natives killed all the travellers except the two brothers, who were taken to the court asslaves. They were given positions of trust by the monarch, and they converted members of the royal court to Christianity. Frumentius became the first bishop of Aksum.[66] A coin dated to 324 shows that Ethiopia was the second country to officially adopt Christianity (after Armenia did so in 301), although the religion may have been at first confined to court circles; it was the first major power to do so. The Aksumites were accustomed to the Greco-Roman sphere of influence, but they embarked on significant cultural ties and trade connections between theIndian subcontinent and the Roman Empire via theSilk Road, primarily exportingivory, tortoise shell, gold and emeralds, and importing silk and spices.[65][67] The country's gold production in 2015 is 9 metric tons.[68]
The kingdom adopted the name "Ethiopia" during the reign ofEzana in the 4th century. After the conquest ofKingdom of Kush in 330, the Aksumite territory reached its peak between the 5th and 6th centuries.[60] This period was interrupted by several incursions into the South Arabian protectorate, includingJewishDhu Nuwas of theHimyarite Kingdom and theAksumite–Persian wars. In 575, the Aksumitesbesieged and retook Sana'a following the assassination of its governorSayf ibn Dhī Yazan. The Red Sea was left to theRashidun Caliphate in 646, and the port city ofAdulis was plundered by Arab Muslims in the 8th century; along with irrevocableland degradation, claimedclimate change and sporadic rainfall precipitation from 730 to 760,[69] these factors likely caused the kingdom to decline in power as part of an important trade route.[60][70] Aksum came to an end in 960 whenQueen Gudit defeated the last king of Aksum.[71] In response, the remnant of the Aksumite population to shift into the southern region and establish theZagwe dynasty, changing its capital toLalibela.[72] Zagwe's rule ended when anAmhara noble manYekuno Amlak revolted against KingYetbarak and established theEthiopian Empire (known by exonym "Abyssinia").
The Ethiopian Empire initiated territorial expansion under the leadership ofAmda Seyon I. He launched campaigns against his Muslim adversaries to the east, resulting in a significant shift in the balance of power in favor of the Christians for the next two centuries. After Amda Seyon's successful eastern campaigns, most of the Muslim principalities in theHorn of Africa came under the suzerainty of the Ethiopian Empire. Stretching fromGojjam to the Somali Coast inZelia.[73] Among these Muslim entities was theSultanate of Ifat. During the reign of EmperorZara Yaqob, the Ethiopian Empire reached its pinnacle. His rule was marked by the consolidation of territorial acquisitions from earlier rulers, the oversight of the construction of numerous churches and monasteries, the active promotion of literature and art, and the strengthening of central imperial authority.[74][75][76] Ifat's successor, theAdal Sultanate,[77] tried to conquer Ethiopia during theEthiopian–Adal War, but was ultimately defeated at the 1543Battle of Wayna Daga.[78]
By the 16th century, an influx of migration by ethnicOromo into northern parts of the region fragmented the empire's power. Embarking from present-dayGuji andBorena Zone, the Oromos were largely motivated by several folkloric conceptions—beginning withMoggaasaa[79] andLiqimssa—many of whom related to their raids. This persisted untilgada of Meslé.[80][81] According toAbba Bahrey, the earliest expansion occurred under EmperorDawit II (luba Melbah), when they encroached toBale before invading Adal Sultanate.[82]
Ethiopia saw major diplomatic contact with Portugal from the 17th century, mainly related to religion. Beginning in 1555,[83] Portuguese Jesuits attempted to develop Roman Catholicism as the state religion. After several failures, they sent several missionaries in 1603, including the most influential, Spanish JesuitPedro Paez.[84] Under EmperorSusenyos I, Roman Catholicism became the state religion of the Ethiopian Empire in 1622.[85] This decision caused an uprising by the Orthodox populace.[86]
In 1632, EmperorFasilides halted Roman Catholic state administration, restoringOrthodox Tewahedo as the state religion.[85] Fasilides' reign solidified imperial power, relocating the capital toGondar in 1636, marking the beginning of the "Gondarine period".[87] He reclaimed lands, and exiledJesuits toFremona. During his rule, Fasilides constructed the iconic royal fortress,Fasil Ghebbi, built forty-four churches,[88] and revivedEthiopian art. He is also credited with building seven stone bridges over theBlue Nile River.[89]
Gondar's power declined after the death ofIyasu I in 1706. FollowingIyasu II's death in 1755, EmpressMentewab brought her brother,Ras Wolde Leul, to Gondar, making him Ras Bitwaded. This led to regnal conflict between Mentewab'sQuaregnoch and the Wollo group led by Wubit. In 1767, RasMikael Sehul, a regent inTigray Province, seized Gondar, killing the childIyoas I in 1769, the reigning emperor, and installed 70-year-oldYohannes II.[90]
Between 1769 and 1855, Ethiopia witnessed theZemene Mesafint or "Age of Princes," a period of isolation. Emperors became figureheads, controlled by regional lords and noblemen likeRas Mikael Sehul, RasWolde Selassie of Tigray, and by theYejju Oromo dynasty of theWara Sheh, including RasGugsa of Yejju. Before the Zemene Mesafint, Emperor Iyoas I had introduced the Oromo language (Afaan Oromo) at court, replacing Amharic.[91][92]
Age of Imperialism (1855–1916)
EmperorTewodros II (r. 1855–1868) brought an end to Zemene Mesafint.
EmperorMenelik II defended Ethiopia's sovereignty during the age of imperialism.
Ethiopian isolationism ended following a British mission that concluded with an alliance between the two nations, but it was not until 1855 that the Amhara kingdoms of northern Ethiopia (Gondar,Gojjam, andShewa) were briefly united after the power of the emperor was restored beginning with the reign ofTewodros II.[93][94] Tewodros II began a process of consolidation, centralisation, and state-building that would be continued by succeeding emperors. This process reduced the power of regional rulers, restructured the empire's administration, and created a professional army. These changes created the basis for establishing the effective sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Ethiopian state.[95] In 1875 and 1876, Ottoman and Egyptian forces, accompanied by many European and American advisors, twiceinvaded Abyssinia but were initially defeated.[96] From 1885 to 1889 (underYohannes IV), Ethiopia joined theMahdist War allied to Britain, the Ottomans, and Egypt against the Sudanese Mahdist State. In 1887,Menelik II, king ofShewa, invaded theEmirate of Harar after his victory at theBattle of Chelenqo.[97] On 10 March 1889, Yohannes IV was killed by the Sudanese Khalifah Abdullah's army whilst leading his army in theBattle of Gallabat.[98]
Ethiopia, in roughly its current form, began under the reign of Menelik II, who was Emperor from 1889 until his death in 1913. From his base in the central province of Shewa, Menelik set out to annex territories to the south, east, and west[99] — areas inhabited by the Oromo,Sidama, Gurage,Welayta, and other peoples.[100] He achieved this with the help ofRasGobana Dacche's Shewan Oromo militia, which occupied lands that had not been held sinceAhmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi's war, as well as other areas that had never been under Ethiopian rule.[101]
For his leadership, despite opposition from more traditional elements of society, Menelik II was heralded as a national hero. He had signed theTreaty of Wuchale with Italy in May 1889, by which Italy would recognize Ethiopia's sovereignty so long as Italy could control an area north of Ethiopia (now part of modern Eritrea). In return, Italy was to provide Menelik with weapons and support him as emperor. The Italians used the time between the signing of the treaty and its ratification by the Italian government to expand their territorial claims. ThisFirst Italo-Ethiopian War culminated in theBattle of Adwa on 1 March 1896, in which Italy's colonial forces were defeated by the Ethiopians.[100][102] During this time, about a third of the population died in theGreat Ethiopian Famine (1888 to 1892),[103][104] and therinderpest swept through the area, destroying much of the herd economy. On 11 October 1897, Ethiopia adopted thecolours of the pan-African flag with green, yellow and red stripes in representation ofpan-Africanist ideology.
The early 20th century was marked by the reign of EmperorHaile Selassie (Ras Tafari). He came to power afterLij Iyasu was deposed, and undertooka nationwide modernization campaign from 1916 when he was made aRas and Regent (Inderase) for theEmpress RegnantZewditu, and became thede facto ruler of the Ethiopian Empire. Following Zewditu's death, on 2 November 1930, he succeeded her as emperor.[105] In 1931, Haile Selassie endowed Ethiopia withits first constitution in emulation of Imperial Japan's1890 Constitution.[106]The independence of Ethiopia was interrupted by theSecond Italo-Ethiopian War, beginning when it was invaded byItaly in early October 1935, and by subsequent Italian rule of the country (1936–1941) after Italian victory in the war.[107] Italy, however, never managed to secure the country in its totality, due to resistance from theArbegnoch; this made Ethiopia, along withLiberia, the only African countries to never be colonized.[108][109] Following the entry of Italy intoWorld War II,British Empire forces, together with the Arbegnoch, liberated Ethiopia in the course of theEast African campaign in 1941. The country was placed underBritish military administration, and then Ethiopia's fullsovereignty was restored with the signing of theAnglo-Ethiopian Agreement in December 1944.[110]
On 24 October 1945, Ethiopia became a founding member of theUnited Nations. In 1952, Haile Selassie orchestrated afederation with Eritrea. He dissolved this in 1962 and annexed Eritrea, resulting in theEritrean War of Independence.[111] Haile Selassie also played a leading role in the formation of theOrganisation of African Unity (OAU).[112] Opinion within Ethiopia turned against Haile Selassie, owing to the worldwide1973 oil crisis causing a sharp increase in gasoline prices starting on 13 February 1974, leading to student and worker protests.[113] The feudal oligarchical cabinet ofAklilu Habte-Wold was toppled, and a new government was formed withEndelkachew Makonnen serving as Prime Minister.[114]
After a power struggle in 1977,Mengistu Haile Mariam gained undisputed leadership of the Derg.[119] In 1977, Somalia, which had previously been receiving assistance and arms from theUSSR, invaded Ethiopia in theOgaden War, capturing part of theOgaden region. Ethiopia recovered it after it began receiving massive military aid from the Soviet bloc countries.[120][121][122] By the end of the seventies, Mengistu presided over the second-largest army in all ofsub-Saharan Africa, as well as a formidableair force and navy.
The collapse ofMarxism–Leninism during therevolutions of 1989 coincided with the Soviet Union stopping aid to Ethiopia altogether in 1990.[129][130][131] EPRDF forces advanced on Addis Ababa in May 1991, and Mengistu fled the country and was granted asylum in Zimbabwe.[132][133]
In July 1991, the EPRDF convened a National Conference to establish theTransitional Government of Ethiopia composed of an 87-memberCouncil of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution.[134] In 1994, a new constitution was written that established a parliamentary republic with a bicameral legislature and a judicial system.[135]
In April 1993,Eritrea gained independence from Ethiopia after anational referendum.[136] In May 1998, a border dispute with Eritrea led to theEritrean–Ethiopian War, which lasted until June 2000 and cost both countries an estimated $1 million a day.[137] This had a negative effect on Ethiopia's economy, and aborder conflict between the two countries would continueuntil 2018.[138][139] As of 2018, furthercivil war in Ethiopia continues, mainly due to destabilization of the country.
The major portion of Ethiopia lies in theHorn of Africa, which is the easternmost part of the African landmass. The territories that have frontiers with Ethiopia are Eritrea to the north and then, moving in a clockwise direction, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, South Sudan and Sudan. Within Ethiopia is a vast highland complex of mountains and dissected plateaus divided by theGreat Rift Valley, which runs generally southwest to northeast and is surrounded by lowlands,steppes, or semi-desert. There is a great diversity of terrain with wide variations in climate, soils, natural vegetation and settlement patterns.
Ethiopia is an ecologically diverse country, ranging from the deserts along the eastern border to the tropical forests in the south to extensiveAfromontane in the northern and southwestern parts.Lake Tana in the north is the source of theBlue Nile. It also has manyendemic species, notably thegelada, thewalia ibex and theEthiopian wolf ("Simien fox"). The wide range of altitude has given the country a variety of ecologically distinct areas, and this has helped to encourage the evolution of endemic species in ecological isolation.
The nation is a land of geographical contrasts, ranging from the vast fertile west, with its forests and numerous rivers, to the world's hottest settlement ofDallol in its north. TheEthiopian Highlands are the largest continuous mountain ranges in Africa, and theSof Omar Caves contains the largest cave on the continent. Ethiopia also has the second-largest number ofUNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa.[158]
The predominant climate type is tropical monsoon, with wide topographic-induced variation. TheEthiopian Highlands cover most of the country and have a climate which is generally considerably cooler than other regions at similar proximity to the Equator. Most of the country's major cities are located at elevations of around 2,000–2,500 m (6,562–8,202 ft) above sea level, including historic capitals such as Gondar and Axum. The modern capital, Addis Ababa, is situated on the foothills ofMount Entoto at an elevation of around 2,400 metres (7,900 ft). It experiences a mild climate year round. With temperatures fairly uniform year round, the seasons in Addis Ababa are largely defined by rainfall: a dry season from October to February, a light rainy season from March to May, and a heavy rainy season from June to September. The average annual rainfall is approximately 1,200 millimetres (47 in).
There are on average seven hours of sunshine per day. The dry season is the sunniest time of the year, though even at the height of the rainy season in July and August there are still usually several hours per day of bright sunshine. The average annual temperature in Addis Ababa is 16 °C (60.8 °F), with daily maximum temperatures averaging 20–25 °C (68.0–77.0 °F) throughout the year, and overnight lows averaging 5–10 °C (41.0–50.0 °F).
Most major cities and tourist sites in Ethiopia lie at a similar elevation to Addis Ababa and have a comparable climate. In less elevated regions, particularly the lower lyingEthiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands in the east of Ethiopia, the climate can be significantly hotter and drier.Dallol, in theDanakil Depression in this eastern zone, has the world's highest average annual temperature of 34 °C (93.2 °F).
Ethiopia is vulnerable to many of theeffects of climate change. These include increases in temperature and changes in precipitation.[161]Climate change in Ethiopia threatens food security and the economy, which is agriculture based.[162] Many Ethiopians have been forced to leave their homes and travel as far as the Gulf, Southern Africa and Europe.[163]
Since April 2019, the Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed has promotedBeautifying Sheger, a development project that aims to reduce the negative effects of climate change – among other things – in the capital city Addis Ababa.[164] In the following May, the government held "Dine for Sheger", a fundraising event in order to cover some of the $1 billion needed through the public.[165] $25 million was raised through the expensive event, both through the cost of attending and donations.[166] Two Chinese railway companies under theBelt and Road Initiative between China and Ethiopia had supplied funds to develop 12 of the total 56 kilometres.[167]
Ethiopia is a global centre of avian diversity. To date more than 856 bird species have been recorded in Ethiopia, twenty of which are endemic to the country.[168] Sixteen species are endangered or critically endangered. Many of these birds feed on butterflies, like theBicyclus anynana.[169][full citation needed]
Historically, throughout the African continent, wildlife populations have been rapidly declining due to logging, civil wars, pollution, poaching, and other human factors.[170] A 17-year-long civil war, along with severe drought, negatively affected Ethiopia's environmental conditions, leading to even greater habitat degradation.[171] Habitat destruction is a factor that leads to endangerment. When changes to a habitat occur rapidly, animals do not have time to adjust. Human impact threatens many species, with greater threats expected as a result of climate change induced bygreenhouse gases.[172] With carbon dioxide emissions in 2010 of 6,494,000 tonnes, Ethiopia contributes just 0.02% to the annual human-caused release of greenhouse gases.[173]
Ethiopia has 31endemic species of mammals.[174] Ethiopia has many species listed as critically endangered and vulnerable to global extinction. The threatened species in Ethiopia can be broken down into three categories (based onIUCN ratings):critically endangered,endangered, andvulnerable.[174]
Ethiopia is one of the eight fundamental and independentcentres of origin for cultivated plants in the world.[175] However,deforestation is a major concern for Ethiopia as studies suggest loss of forest contributes to soil erosion, loss of nutrients in the soil, loss of animal habitats, and reduction in biodiversity. At the beginning of the 20th century, around 420,000 km2 (or 35%) of Ethiopia's land was covered by trees, but recent research indicates that forest cover is now approximately 11.9% of the area.[176] The country had a 2018Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.16/10, ranking it 50th globally out of 172 countries.[177]
Ethiopia loses an estimated 1,410 km2 of natural forests each year due to firewood collection, conversion to farmland, overgrazing, and use of forest wood for building material. Between 1990 and 2005 the country lost approximately 21,000 km2 of forests.[178] Current government programs to control deforestation consist of education, promoting reforestation programs, and providing raw materials which are alternatives to timber. In rural areas the government also provides non-timber fuel sources and access to non-forested land to promote agriculture without destroying forest habitat.[179]
Organizations such as SOS and Farm Africa are working with the federal government and local governments to create a system of forest management.[180]
Ethiopia is afederalparliamentary republic, wherein thePrime Minister is thehead of government, and thePresident is thehead of state but with largely ceremonial powers.Executive power is exercised by the government and federallegislative power vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament. TheHouse of Federation is the upper chamber of the bicameral legislature with 108 seats, and the lower chamber is theHouse of Peoples' Representatives (HoPR) with 547 seats. The House of Federation is chosen by the regional councils whereas MPs of the HoPR are elected directly, in turn, they elect the president for a six-year term and the prime minister for a 5-year term.[181]
TheFederal Supreme Court is the highest court determining constitutionality of ordeals in the nation.
The Ethiopianjudiciary consists of dual system with two court structures: the federal and state courts. The FDRE Constitution vested federal judicial authority to theFederal Supreme Court which can overturn and review decisions of subordinate federal courts; itself has regular division assigned for fundamentalerrors of law. In addition, the Supreme Court can performcircuit hearings in established five states at any states of federal levels or "area designated for its jurisdiction" if deemed "necessary for the efficient rendering of justice".[182][183]
The Federal Supreme Proclamation granted three subject matter principles: laws, parties and place to federal court jurisdiction, first "cases arising under theConstitution,federal laws andinternational treaties", second over "parties specified by federal laws".[184]
On the basis of Article 78 of the 1994 Ethiopian Constitution, the judiciary is completely independent of the executive and the legislature.[185] To ensure this, the President and Vice President of the Supreme Court are appointed by Parliament on the nomination of Prime Minister. Once elected, the executive power has no authority to remove them from office. Other judges are nominated by theFederal Judicial Administration Council (FJAC) on the basis of transparent criteria and the Prime Minister's recommendation for appointment in the HoPR. In all cases, judges cannot be removed from their duty unless they retired, violated disciplinary rules, gross incompatibility, or inefficiency to unfit due to ill health. Contrary, the majority vote of HoPR have the right to sanction removal in federal judiciary level or state council in cases of state judges.[186] In 2015, the realities of this provision were questioned in a report prepared byFreedom House.[187]
Post-1995, Ethiopia's politics has been liberalized which promotes all-encompassing reforms to the country. Today, its economy is based onmixed,market-oriented principles.[186] Ethiopia has twelve semi-autonomous administrative regions that have the power to raise and spend their own revenues.[citation needed]
Thefirst multiparty election took place in May 1995, which was won by the EPRDF.[188] The president of the transitional government, EPRDF leaderMeles Zenawi, became the firstPrime Minister of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, andNegasso Gidada was elected its president.[189] Meles' government was consistently re-elected; however, these results were heavily criticized by international observers, and denounced by the opposition as fraudulent.[190]
Meles died on 20 August 2012 in Brussels, where he was being treated for an unspecified illness.[191] Deputy Prime MinisterHailemariam Desalegn was appointed as a new prime minister until the2015 elections,[192] and remained so afterwards with his party in control of every parliamentary seat.[193] On 15 February 2018, Hailemariamresigned as Prime Minister, followingyears of protests and astate of emergency.[194][195][196]Abiy Ahmed became prime minister following Hailemariam's resignation. He made a historic visit to Eritrea in 2018, ending the state of conflict between the two countries,[139] and was awarded theNobel Peace Prize in 2019.[197]
According to theDemocracy Index published by the United Kingdom-basedEconomist Intelligence Unit in late 2010, Ethiopia was an "authoritarian regime", ranking as the 118th-most democratic out of 167 countries.[198] Ethiopia had dropped 13 places on the list since 2008, and the 2010 report attributed the drop to the government's crackdown on opposition activities, media, and civil society before the2010 parliamentary election, which the report argued had made Ethiopia ade facto one-party state.[199]
Ethiopia isadministratively divided into four levels:regions,zones,woredas (districts) andkebele (wards).[206][207] The country comprises 12 regions and two city administrations under these regions, plenty of zones, woredas and neighbourhood administration: kebeles. The two federal-level city administrations are Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa.[208]
Ethiopia's foreign relations with bothSudan andEgypt are somewhat fraught owing to the effects theGrand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam project, which was escalated in 2020, would have onwater rights in the region.[216][217] Despite six upstream countries (Ethiopia,Kenya,Uganda,Rwanda,Burundi, andTanzania) signing the Nile Basin Initiative in 2010, Egypt and Sudan rejected a water sharing treaty, citing the reduction of amount of water to theNile Basin and the challenge it would pose to their historic connection ofwater rights.[218][219] In 2020, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed warned that "No force can stop Ethiopia from building a dam. If there is need to go to war, we could get millions readied."[220]
Ethiopia is one of the African countries that was a founding member ofLeague of Nations, which served as the predecessor for theUnited Nations, since 1923. UN taskforces in Ethiopia deal primarily with humanitarian issues and development. Some of its agencies[which?] maintain regional ties withUnited Nations Economic Commission for Africa and the African Union. The UN prioritizessustainable development in Ethiopia, including fighting poverty, sustainable economic growth,climate change policy, educational and healthcare provisions, increasing employment, and environmental protection.[221]
Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) training underAMISOM, 2021
The Ethiopian army's origins and military traditions date back to the earliesthistory of Ethiopia. Due to Ethiopia's location between the Middle East and Africa, it has long been in the middle of Eastern and Western politics and has been subject to foreign invasions. In 1579, theOttoman Empire's attempt to expand from a coastal base atMassawa during theOttoman conquest of Habesh was defeated.[222] TheArmy of the Ethiopian Empire was also able to defeat the Egyptians in 1876 atGura, led by Ethiopian EmperorYohannes IV.[223] Ethiopia only has 3 branches inside the military, consisting of theArmy,Airforce, and aNavy although it is landlocked. With an annual budget of over $1 billion dollars, it is the largest armed force in East Africa, and one of the largest in Africa.[224][225]
Law enforcement
Ethiopia has two main federal law enforcement agencies at the federal level, to which being theEthiopian Federal Police, and theNational Intelligence Security Service. TheNISS serving both as a spy agency and domestic law enforcement agency has national jurisdiction for counterterrorism, and foreign related counter espionage activities and protectingnational security. It also has authority related to international economic crimes related of which to Ethiopia as a whole.[226][227] It alongside theEFP (Ethiopian Federal Police) who both enforce federal laws domestically and for theNational Intelligence Security Service cooperate internationally and enforce border regulations and peoples and products coming in and out in Ethiopia.[228] The EFP mostly enforcing non-international, and non-espionage crimes, enforcingcivil rights related subjects of matter and domestic financial crimes. At the regional level Ethiopia has 12 regionals statewide police departments, and 2 federally chartered police forces, those being the Addis Ababa Police, and Dire Dawa Police forces.[229][230]
Ethiopia registered the fastest economic growth underMeles Zenawi's administration.[231]According to theIMF, Ethiopia was one of the fastest growing economies in the world, registering over 10% economic growth from 2004 through 2009.[232] It was the fastest-growing non-oil-dependent African economy in the years 2007 and 2008.[233] In 2015, the World Bank highlighted that Ethiopia had witnessed rapid economic growth with real domestic product (GDP) growth averaging 10.9% between 2004 and 2014.[234]
In 2008 and 2011, Ethiopia's growth performance and considerable development gains were challenged by highinflation and a difficultbalance of payments situation. Inflation surged to 40% in August 2011 because of loosemonetary policy, largecivil service wage increase in early 2011, and high food prices.[235]
In spite of fast growth in recent years, GDP per capita is one of the lowest in the world, and the economy faces a number of serious structural problems. Based on the most recent data from 2019, 68.7% of the population is affected bymultidimensional poverty and an additional 18.4% vulnerable to it.[27]
With a focused investment in public infrastructure and industrial parks, Ethiopia is attempting to address its structural problems by becoming a hub for light manufacturing in Africa.[236] In 2019 a law was passed allowing expatriate Ethiopians to invest in Ethiopia's financial service industry.[237]
An Ethiopian logistics shipping cargo docked at the Red Sea
The Ethiopian constitution specifies that rights to own land belong only to "the state and the people", but citizens may lease land for up to 99 years, but are unable to mortgage or sell. Renting out land for a maximum of twenty years is allowed and this is expected to ensure that land goes to the most productive user.[citation needed] Land distribution and administration is considered an area where corruption is institutionalized, and facilitation payments as well as bribes are often demanded when dealing with land-related issues.[238] As there is no land ownership, infrastructural projects are most often simply done without asking the land users, which then end up being displaced and without a home or land. A lot of anger and distrust sometimes results in public protests. In addition, agricultural productivity remains low, and frequent droughts still beset the country, also leading to internal displacement.[239]
Ethiopia has 14 major rivers flowing from its highlands, including the Nile. It has the largest water reserves in Africa. As of 2012[update], hydroelectric plants represented around 88.2% of the total installed electricity generating capacity.
The remaining electrical power was generated from fossil fuels (8.3%) and renewable sources (3.6%).
The electrification rate for the total population in 2016 was 42%, with 85% coverage in urban areas and 26% coverage in rural areas. As of 2016[update], total electricity production was 11.15 TW⋅h and consumption was 9.062 TW⋅h. There were 0.166 TW⋅h of electricity exported, 0 kW⋅h imported, and 2.784 GW of installed generating capacity.[11]Ethiopia delivers roughly 81% of water volume to the Nile through the river basins of theBlue Nile,Sobat River andAtbara. In 1959, Egypt and Sudan signed a bilateral treaty, the1959 Nile Waters Agreement, which gave both countries exclusive maritime rights over the Nile waters. Ever since, Egypt has discouraged almost all projects in Ethiopia that sought to use the local Nile tributaries. This had the effect of discouraging external financing of hydropower and irrigation projects in western Ethiopia, thereby impeding water resource-based economic development projects. However, Ethiopia is in the process of constructing a large 6,450 MW hydroelectric dam on the Blue Nile river. Completed in 2023, thisGrand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam is slated to be the largest hydroelectric power station in Africa.[240] TheGibe III hydroelectric project is so far the largest in the country with an installed capacity of 1,870 MW. For the year 2017–18 (2010 E.C) this hydroelectric dam generated 4,900 GW⋅h.[241]
Agriculture constitutes around 85% of the labour force. However, the service sector represents the largest portion of theGDP.[11] Many other economic activities depend on agriculture, including marketing, processing, and export of agricultural products. Production is overwhelmingly by small-scale farmers and enterprises, and a large part of commodity exports are provided by the small agricultural cash-crop sector. Principal crops includecoffee,legumes,oilseeds,cereals, potatoes,sugarcane, and vegetables. Ethiopia is also aVavilov centre of diversity for domesticated crops, includingenset,[242]coffee, okra andteff.
Exports are almost entirely agricultural commodities (with the exception ofgold exports), and coffee is the largest foreign exchange earner. Ethiopia is Africa's second biggestmaize producer.[243] According to UN estimations, the per capita GDP of Ethiopia has reached $357 as of 2011[update].[244]
Light rail train inAddis Ababa, which hosts over 50,000 passengers a day.[245]
Ethiopia's biggest companyEthiopian Airlines, which has an annual revenue of 6.1 billion dollars and making it the 14th biggest airlines in revenue, contributes to the country's export business.[246]
Ethio Telecom is one of the country's biggest companies which generates over a billion dollars annually.[247]
Ethiopia is often considered as the birthplace ofcoffee since cultivation began in the 9th century.[248] Exports from Ethiopia in the 2009–2010 financial year totalled US$1.4 billion.[249] Ethiopia produces more coffee than any other nation on the continent.[250] "Coffee provides a livelihood for close to 15 million Ethiopians, 16% of the population. Farmers in the eastern part of the country, where a warming climate is already impacting production, have struggled in recent years, and many are currently reporting largely failed harvests as a result of a prolonged drought".[251]
Ethiopia also has the fifth largest inventory ofcattle.[252] Other main export commodities arekhat, gold, leather products, and oilseeds. Recent development of thefloriculture sector means Ethiopia is poised to become one of the top flower and plant exporters in the world.[253]
Cross-border trade by pastoralists is often informal and beyond state control and regulation. InEast Africa, over 95% of cross-border trade is through unofficial channels. The unofficial trade of live cattle, camels, sheep, and goats from Ethiopia sold toSomalia,Djibouti, andKenya generates an estimated total value of US$250–300 million annually (100 times more than the official figure).[254]
This trade helps lower food prices, increase food security, relieve border tensions, and promote regional integration.[254] However, the unregulated and undocumented nature of this trade runs risks, such as allowing disease to spread more easily across national borders. Furthermore, the government of Ethiopia is purportedly unhappy with lost tax revenue and foreign exchange revenues.[254] Recent initiatives have sought to document and regulate this trade.[254]
With the private sector growing slowly, designerfashion and leather products like bags are becoming a big export business, with Taytu becoming the first luxury designer label in the country.[255] Additional small-scale export products include cereals, pulses, cotton, sugarcane, potatoes, and hides. With the construction of various new dams and growing hydroelectric power projects around the country, Ethiopia also plans to export electric power to its neighbours.[256][257]
Most regard Ethiopia's large water resources and potential as its "white oil" and its coffee resources as "black gold".[258][259]
PaleoanthropologistZeresenay Alemseged in 2013. He was best known for discovering fossilizedhominin calledSelam or "Lucy's baby" in December 2000.[264]
Science and technology in Ethiopia emerging as progressive due to lack of organized institutions. Manufacturing and service providers often place themselves incompetitive programming in order to advance innovative and technological solutions through in-house arenas.[clarification needed] TheEthiopian Space Science and Technology is responsible for conducting multifaceted tasks regarding space and technology. In addition, Ethiopia also launched 70 kg ET-RSS1 multi-spectral remote sensing satellite in December 2019. The President Sahle-Work Zewde told prior in October 2019 that "the satellite will provide all the necessary data on changes in climate and weather-related phenomena that would be used for the country's key targets in agriculture, forestry as well as natural resources protection initiatives." By January 2020, satellite manufacturing, assembling, integrating and testing began. This would also incremented facility built by French company funded by European Investment Bank (EIB). The main observatory Entoto Observatory and Space Science Research Center (EORC) allocated space programmes. The Ethiopian Biotechnology Institute is a part of Scientific Research & Development Services Industry, responsible for environmental and climate conservation.[265] Numerous profound scientists have contributed degree of honours and reputations. Some areKitaw Ejigu,Mulugeta Bekele,Aklilu Lemma,Gebisa Ejeta andMelaku Worede. Computer scientistTimnit Gebru, named one ofTime's most influential people in 2022, was born in Ethiopia.[266]
Ethiopia is known for the use oftraditional medicine since millennia. The first epidemic that occurred in Ethiopia was in 849, causing the Aksumite Emperor Abba Yohannes evicted from place due to "God's punishment for misdeeds".[clarification needed] The first traditional medicinal remedy was claimed to be derived from this catastrophe, but the exact source is debated. Though it differs among ethnic groups, traditional medicine often implements herbs, spiritual healing, bone-setting and minor surgical procedures in treating disease.[267]
Population in millions according to 2007 Census[3]
Ethiopia is the most populous landlocked country in the world.[269] Its total population has grown substantially in recent decades, rising from 38.1 million in 1983 to 135 million in 2025.[10][270] The 2050 Ethiopia population forecast is 225 million.[271] According to UN estimations in 2013, life expectancy had improved substantially over time, with male life expectancy reported to be 56 years and for women 60 years.[244]
Ethiopia's population is highly diverse, containing over 80 different ethnic groups, the four largest of which are theOromo,Amhara,Somali andTigrayans. According to the Ethiopian national census of 2007, theOromo are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia, at 34.4% of the nation's population. TheAmhara represent 27.0% of the country's inhabitants, whileSomalis andTigrayans represent 6.2% and 6.1% of the population respectively.[3]
Afroasiatic-speaking communities make up the majority of the population. Among these, Semitic speakers often collectively refer to themselves as theHabesha people. TheArabic form of this term (al-Ḥabasha) is the etymological basis of "Abyssinia", the former name of Ethiopia in English and other European languages.[272]
In 2009, Ethiopia hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 135,200. The majority of this population came from Somalia (approximately 64,300 persons), Eritrea (41,700) and Sudan (25,900). The Ethiopian government required nearly all refugees to live in refugee camps.[273]
Sheger Park is the largest park in the country, hosting hundreds of thousands of visitors a year since its opening.
Population growth, migration, and urbanization are all straining both governments' and ecosystems' capacity to provide people with basic services.[274] Urbanization has steadily been increasing in Ethiopia, with two periods of significantly rapid growth. First, in 1936–1941 during the Italian occupation under Mussolini's fascist government, and then from 1967 to 1975 when the populations of urban areas tripled.[275]
In 1936, Italy annexed Ethiopia, building infrastructure to connect major cities, and a dam providing power and water.[276] This, along with the influx of Italians and labourers, was the major cause of rapid growth during this period. The second period of growth was from 1967 to 1975, when rural populations migrated to towns seeking work and better living conditions.[275]
This pattern slowed due to the 1975 Land Reform program instituted by the government, which provided incentives for people to stay in rural areas. As people moved from rural areas to the cities, there were fewer people to grow food for the population. The Land Reform Act was meant to increase agriculture since food production was not keeping up with population growth over the period of 1970–1983. This program encouraged the formation of peasant associations, large villages based on agriculture. The legislation did lead to an increase in food production, although there is debate over the cause; it may be related to weather conditions more than the reform.[277] Urban populations have continued to grow with an 8.1% increase from 1975 to 2000.
Over 6 million residents live inAddis Ababa, the financial epicenter of the countryA group of men gather in a rural village for health training
Migration to urban areas is usually motivated by the hope of better lives. In peasant associations, daily life is a struggle to survive. About 16% of the population in Ethiopia lives on less than one dollar per day (2008). Only 65% of rural households in Ethiopia consume theWorld Health Organization's (WHO's) minimum standard of food per day (2,200 kilocalories), with 42% of children under five years old being underweight.[280]
Most poor families (75%) share their sleeping quarters with livestock, and 40% of children sleep on the floor, where nighttime temperatures average 5 degrees Celsius in the cold season.[280] The average family size is six or seven, living in a 30 square metre mud and thatch hut, with less than two hectares of land to cultivate.[280]
The peasant associations face a cycle of poverty. Since the landholdings are so small, farmers cannot allow the land to lie fallow, which reduces soil fertility.[280] Thisland degradation reduces the production of fodder for livestock, which causes low milk yields.[280] Since the community burns livestock manure as fuel, rather than plowing the nutrients back into the land, the crop production is reduced.[280] The low productivity of agriculture leads to inadequate incomes for farmers, hunger, malnutrition and disease. These unhealthy farmers have difficulty working the land and the productivity drops further.[280]
Although conditions are drastically better in cities, all of Ethiopia suffers from poverty andpoor sanitation. However, poverty in Ethiopia fell from 44% to 29.6% during 2000–2011, according to the World Bank.[281] In the capital city of Addis Ababa, 55% of the population used to live in slums.[276] Now, however, a construction boom in both the private and the public sector has led to a dramatic improvement in living standards in major cities, particularly in Addis Ababa. Notably, government-built condominium housing complexes have sprung up throughout the city, benefiting close to 600,000 individuals.[282] Sanitation is the most pressing need in the city, with most of the population lacking access to waste treatment facilities. This contributes to the spread of illness through unhealthy water.[276]
Despite the urban living conditions, residents of Addis Ababa are more financially secure than those living in peasant associations, owing to their increased educational and economic opportunities. Unlike rural children, 69% of urban children are enrolled in primary school, and 35% are eligible to attend secondary school.[clarification needed][276] Addis Ababa has its ownuniversity as well as its ownsecondary schools. The literacy rate in Addis Ababa is 82% as of 2008.[276]
Many NGOs (non-governmental organizations) are working to solve this problem; however, most are far apart, uncoordinated, and working in isolation. The Sub-Saharan Africa NGO Consortium is attempting to coordinate efforts.
English is the most widely spoken foreign language, the medium of instruction in secondary schools and all tertiary education; federal laws are also published in British English in theFederal Negarit Gazeta including the 1995 constitution.[286]
Amharic was the language of primary school instruction, but has been replaced in many areas by regional languages such as Oromo, Somali or Tigrinya.[287] All languages enjoy equal state recognition in the1995 Constitution of Ethiopia.[135]
According to the 2007 National Census, Christians make up 62.8% of the country's population, Muslims 33.9%, practitioners of traditional faiths 2.6%, and other religions 0.6%.[3] The ratio of the Christian to Muslim population has largely remained stable when compared to previous censuses conducted decades ago.[291] Sunnis form the majority of Muslims withnon-denominational Muslims being the second largest group of Muslims, andthe Shia are a minority. Sunnis are largelyShafi'is orSalafis; there are also manySufis there.[292]
Ethiopia has close historical ties with all three of the world's majorAbrahamic religions. In the 4th century, the Ethiopian empire was one of the first in the world to officially adopt Christianity as the state religion. As a result of the resolutions of theCouncil of Chalcedon, in 451 theMiaphysites, which included the vast majority of Christians in Egypt and Ethiopia, were accused ofmonophysitism and designated as heretics under the common name ofCoptic Christianity (seeOriental Orthodoxy).[293]
Islam in Ethiopia dates back to the founding of the religion in 622 when a group of Muslims were counselled byMuhammad to escape persecution inMecca. The disciples subsequentlymigrated to Abyssinia via modern-day Eritrea, which was at the time ruled byAshama ibn-Abjar, a pious Christian emperor.[295]
Declining child mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa and Ethiopia since 1950
Only a minority of Ethiopians are born in hospitals, while most are born in rural households. Those who are expected to give birth at home have elderly women serve as midwives who assist with the delivery.[296] The "WHO estimates that a majority of maternal fatalities and disabilities could be prevented if deliveries were to take place at well-equipped health centres, with adequately trained staff".[297]Birth rates,infant mortality rates, anddeath rates are lower in cities than in rural areas due to better access to education, medicines, and hospitals.[276] Life expectancy is better in cities compared to rural areas, but there have been significant improvements witnessed throughout the country as of 2016, the average Ethiopian living to be 62.2 years old, according to aUNDP report.[298] Despite sanitation being a problem, use of improved water sources is also on the rise; 81% in cities compared to 11% in rural areas.
Ethiopia's main health problems are said to be communicable (contagious) diseases worsened by poor sanitation andmalnutrition. Over 58 million people (nearly half the population) do not have access to clean water as of 2023.[299] These problems are exacerbated by the shortage of trained doctors and nurses and health facilities.[300] TheWorld Health Organization's 2006 World Health Report gives a figure of 1,936 physicians (for 2003), which comes to about 2.6 per 100,000.[301]
The National Mental Health Strategy, published in 2012, introduced the development of policy designed to improve mental health care in Ethiopia. This strategy mandated that mental health be integrated into the primary health care system.[302] However, the success of the National Mental Health Strategy has been limited. For example, the burden of depression is estimated to have increased 34.2% from 2007 to 2017.[303] Furthermore, the prevalence of stigmatizing attitudes, inadequate leadership and co-ordination of efforts, as well as a lack of mental health awareness in the general population, all remain as obstacles to successful mental health care.[304]
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Ethiopia ranks 102nd out of 127 countries and has a score of 26.2, which indicates a serious level of hunger.[305]
The current system follows school expansion schemes which are very similar to the system in the rural areas during the 1980s, with an addition of deeper regionalization, providing rural education in students' own languages starting at the elementary level, and with more budgetary financing allocated to the education sector. Public education is free at primary levels and usually offers between age 7 and 12. The sequence of general education in Ethiopia is six years of primary school, then four years of lower secondary school followed by two years of higher secondary school.[306]
As of 2022, there are 83 universities, 42 public universities, and more than 35 higher education institutions. Foreign students constitute 16,305 in higher education level. The overall number of tertiary students in both public and private institutions exploded by more than 2,000 percent, from 34,000 in 1991 to 757,000 in 2014, per UIS data.[309][310] Access to education in Ethiopia has improved significantly. Approximately three million people were in primary school in 1994–95 but by 2008–09, primary enrolment had risen to 15.5 million – an increase of over 500%.[311] In 2013–14, Ethiopia had witnessed a significant boost in gross enrolment across all regions.[312] The national GER was 104.8% for boys, 97.8% for girls and 101.3% across both sexes.[313]
The literacy rate has increased in recent years: according to the 1994 census, the literacy rate in Ethiopia was 23.4%.[284] In 2007 it was estimated to be 39% (male 49.1% and female 28.9%).[314] A report byUNDP in 2011 showed that the literacy rate in Ethiopia was 46.7%. The same report also indicated that the female literacy rate had increased from 27 to 39 per cent from 2004 to 2011, and the male literacy rate had increased from 49 to 59 per cent over the same period for persons 10 years and older.[315] By 2015, the literacy rate had further increased, to 49.1% (57.2% male and 41.1% female).[316]
Ethiopia's culture heavily influenced by the local population, an interaction of Semitic, Cushitic and less populous Nilo-Saharan speaking people, which evolved from first millennium BC. Semitic Tigrayans and Amharas, who dominated the politics in the past, distinguished from other population by hierarchical structure and agrarian life derived partly from South Arabia as a result of back migration, while the southern Cushitic (Oromo and Somali) are strong adherents toegalitarianism and pastoral life. Other traditions from the Kaffa, Sidamo, and Afar peoples are also present.[317]
The Ethiopian New Year orEnkutatash is celebrated with theadey abeba flower symbolising a new beginning, each year across the country.
Ethiopia has 6 patriotic and public holidays and 9 major religious holidays given government recognition. The year (Gregorian calendar) starts withEthiopian Christmas on January 7, it also hasEpiphany or Timkat on January 19 or 20 depending on if the year is a leap, which celebrates the baptism ofJesus Christ byJohn the Baptist. Timkat is recognized by the United Nations as part of its "Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists" which are designated for important cultural and religious holidays.[318][319] Three holidays are movable likeRamadan,Good Friday andEaster of which two are in spring and Ramadan in Islamic celebrations. Other holidays includeMawlid which begins on the 12th or 17th on the Islamic calendar depending on which Muslim denomination is the celebrator, nonetheless due to the fact that the majority of Ethiopian Muslims are Sunni it is thus celebrated on the 12th day on the third month on the Islamic calendar which is in September. Other includeEid al-Fitr andEid al-Adha for other Islamic holidays whilst for Christians, the finding of the true cross or otherwise is calledMeskel.[320][321][322]
For public holidays the first of which falls on the calendar isAdwa Victory Day on 2 March, commemoratingEmperor Menelik II's victory over the attempted but failed colonization efforts of Italy in 1896. Others follow, such as theInternational Workers' Day on the 1st of May, theEthiopian Patriots' Victory Day for celebrating the return of Emperor Haile Selassie I and thus the liberation of fascist Italian occupation on the 5th of May and theDownfall of the Derg on the 28th of May, a recent holiday promoted to a public status by the ruling government after 1991. And the most prominent of public holidays isEnkutatash which is the largest, celebrating theEthiopian new year on September 11 or 12, which is approximately 7–8 years behind the rest of the world, depending on if the year is a leap, and thus behind ultimately the Georgian calendar by several years.Defense Day also exists for celebrating service men on the 26th of October the last holiday in the Gregorian calendar.[323]
Nonetheless other festivals and holidays like the honoring of Saint Yohannes and others are celebrated across the country includingIrrecha celebrated by theOromo community.[324][325]
Arts of Ethiopia were largely influenced by Christian iconography throughout much of its history. This consisted ofilluminated manuscripts,painting,crosses,icons and othermetalwork such as crowns. Most historical arts were commissioned by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the state religion for a millennium. The earlier Aksumite period arts were stone carvings as evidenced in their stelae, though there is no surviving Christian art from this era. As Christianity was introduced, its iconography was partly influenced byByzantine art. Most remaining arts beyond the early modern period were ruined as a result of invasion of theAdal Sultanate in theEthiopian Highlands, but were revived by Catholic emissaries.[citation needed] TheWestern intervention in Ethiopian art began in the 20th century, while also maintaining traditional Ethiopian character. Some notable contemporary Ethiopian artists includeAfewerk Tekle,Lemma Guya,Martha Nasibù,Ale Felege Selam and others.[326][327]
Ethiopian architecture like the "Bete Medhane Alem" or "House of our Saviour" is one of the 12 churches inLalibela built under EmperorLalibela I.Emperor Lalibela I commissioned large portions of the Lalibela church complex promptly named after him. This was largely attested to the inspiration for Ethiopia during the medieval times due to blockage from Jerusalem by Muslim conquests to replicate its own form of a "new Jerusalem" at a national level. Perhaps one of the most notable architectures in antiquity was founded during the Dʿmt period.Ashlar masonry was an archetype ofSouth Arabian architecture with the most architectural structure similarity.[328][329]
The Aksumite continued to flourish its architecture around the 4th century CE. Aksumite stelae commonly used single block and rocks. The Tomb of the False Door built for Aksumite emperors used monolithic style.[330] TheLalibela civilization was largely of Aksumite influence, but the layer of stones or wood is quite different for some dwellings.[331]
In the Gondarine period, the architecture of Ethiopia was influenced by Baroque, Arab, Turkish and Gujarati Indian styles independently taught by Portuguese emissaries in the 16th and 17th centuries.[citation needed] Examples include the imperial fortressFasil Ghebbi, which is influenced by a mix of these styles. The medieval architecture also affected the later 19th- and 20th-century era.[332]
Ethiopian literature traces back to the Aksumite period in the 4th century, mostly religious motifs. In royal inscriptions, it employed bothGe'ez andGreek language, but the latter was discontinued in 350.[citation needed] Unlike most Sub-Saharan African countries, Ethiopia has an ancient distinct language, the Ge'ez, which dominated political and educational aspects. In spite of the current political instability in the country endangering cultural heritage of these works, preservation has improved in recent years.[335]
During and the approximate time of theMiddle Ages composers such asAbba Gorgoryos andGiyorgis of Segla have influenced Ethiopian languages such as writing one of the earliest instances ofAmharic and dictionaries of Ge'ez and such. Also encompassing religious hymns and doctrine justifications regarding issues in the Ethiopian Orthodox church and practices.[336][337]
The Ethiopian literary works mostly consisted of handwrittencodex (branna, or ብራና in Amharic). It is prepared by gathering parchment leaves and sewing to stick together. The codex size varies considerably depending on volumes and preparation. For example, pocket size codex lengthens 45 cm, which is heavier in weight. Historians speculated that archaic codex existed in Ethiopia. Today manuscripts resembling primitive codex are still evident for existence where parchment leaves are convenient for writing.[335]
Another notable writing book is protective (or magic)scroll, serving as written amulet. Some of these were intended for magical purpose, for exampleketab is used for magical defence. Scrolls were typically produced bydebtera, non-ordained clergy expertise onexorcism and healings. About 30 cm scroll is portable whereas 2 cm is often unrolled and hanged to the walls of houses. Scrolls emulating original medium of Ethiopia literature is highly disputed, where there is overwhelming evidence that Ge'ez language books were written in codex. In lesser, Ethiopia used accordion books (calledsensul) which were dated to late 15th or 16th century, made up of folded parchment paper, with or without cover. Those books usually contain pictorial representation of life and death of religious figures, or significant texts have also juxtaposed.[335]
Baalu Girma andHaddis Alemayehu have been noted as the most influential novelist in Ethiopian history. Girma giving a critique of the communist government in the 80s in Ethiopia in his works. Haddis Alemayehu giving rise to one of the first examinations ofrealism and aromance tragedy in his works of novel and having influenced the sphere of Ethiopian intellectual community.[338][339]
Ethiopia is highly popularized inpoetry. Most poets recount past events, social unrests, poverty and famine.Qene is the most used element of Ethiopian poetry – regarded as a form of Amharic poetry, though the term generally refers to any poems. True qene requires advanced ingenious mindset. By providing two metaphorical words, i.e. one with obvious clues and the other is too convoluted conundrum, one must answer parallel meanings. Thus, this is calledsem ena work (gold and wax).[340] The most notable poets areTsegaye Gebre-Medhin,[341]Kebede Michael andMengistu Lemma.[342]
Ethiopian philosophy has been superlatively prolific since ancient times in Africa, though offset ofGreek andPatristic philosophy. The best known philosophical revival was in the early modern period figures such asZera Yacob (1599–1692) and his studentWalda Heywat, who wroteHatata (Inquiry) in 1667 as an argument for theexistence of God.
Yared in a piece of 15th century Ethiopian sacred art holding a mequamia (prayer stick)
Themusic of Ethiopia is extremely diverse, with each of the country's 80 ethnic groups being associated with unique sounds. Ethiopian music uses a distinctmodal system that ispentatonic, with characteristically long intervals between some notes. As with many other aspects of Ethiopian culture and tradition, tastes in music and lyrics are strongly linked with those in neighbouring Eritrea, Somalia, Djibouti, and Sudan.[343][344] Traditional singing in Ethiopia presents diverse styles ofpolyphony (heterophony,drone, imitation, andcounterpoint). Traditionally, lyricism in Ethiopian song writing is strongly associated with views of patriotism or national pride, romance, friendship, and a unique type of memoire known astizita.
SaintYared, a 6th-century Aksumite composer, is widely regarded as the forerunner of traditional music of Eritrea and Ethiopia, creating liturgical music of the Ethiopian andEritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.[345]
Modern music is traced back to the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie, where 40 Armenian orphans calledArba Lijoch arrived fromJerusalem to Addis Ababa. By 1924, the band was almost established as orchestral; but after World War II, several similar bands emerged such as Imperial Bodyguard Band, Army Band, and Police Band.[346]
In the 1960s and 1970s, traditional infused modern Ethiopian music was revived in what is known as the "Golden Age". Several notable musical artists emerged thereafter, for example,Tilahun Gessesse,Alemayehu Eshete,Bizunesh Bekele,Muluken Melesse andMahmoud Ahmed. It also employed tradition style calledtizita. During the Derg regime, these artists were prohibited to perform in the country and often forced into exile in North America and Europe, mixing with jazz and funk influences. For example, Roha Band,Walias Band, and Ethio Stars. By this time,Neway Debebe was critical of the Derg government.[340]
Modern music became developed shortly in the 1990s and 2000s. In this period, the most popular artists wereAster Aweke,Gigi andTeddy Afro. Ethiopian music further modernized in the next decade, employing electronic type and more popular. DJRophnan was renowned for pioneering EDM after releasing his debut albumReflection in 2018.[340]
Ethiopia has several local calendars. The most widely known is theEthiopian calendar, also known as the Ge'ez calendar, and written with the ancientGe'ez script, one of the oldest alphabets still in use in the world.[347] It is based on the older Alexandrian orCoptic calendar, which in turn derives from theEgyptian calendar. Like the Coptic calendar, the Ethiopian calendar has twelve months of exactly 30 days each plus five or sixepagomenal days, which form a thirteenth month. The Ethiopian months begin on the same days as those of the Coptic calendar, but their names are in Ge'ez.[348]
Like theJulian calendar, the sixth epagomenal day—which in essence is aleap day—is added every four years without exception on 29 August of the Julian calendar, six months before the Julian leap day. Thus, the first day of the Ethiopian year, 1Mäskäräm, for years between 1901 and 2099 (inclusive), is usually 11 September (Gregorian), but falls on 12 September in years before the Gregorian leap year. It is approximately seven years and three months behind the Gregorian calendar because of an alternate calculation in determining the date of theAnnunciation of Jesus.[349]
Another calendrical system was developed around 300 BC by theOromo people. A lunar-stellar calendar, thisOromo calendar relies on astronomical observations of the moon in conjunction with seven particular stars or constellations. Oromo months (stars/lunar phases) areBittottessa (Iangulum),Camsa (Pleiades),Bufa (Aldebarran),Waxabajjii (Belletrix),Obora Gudda (Central Orion-Saiph),Obora Dikka (Sirius),Birra (full moon),Cikawa (gibbous moon),Sadasaa (quarter moon),Abrasa (large crescent),Ammaji (medium crescent), andGurrandala (small crescent).[350]
TheEthiopian Broadcasting Corporation (EBC), formerly known as ETV, is thestate media. Radio broadcasting was commenced earlier in 1935 before the television service began in 1962 with assistance of British firm Thomson and Emperor Haile Selassie.[351] Since 2015, EBC has upgraded its studios with modernized transmission.
Kana TV is the most popular TV channel in Ethiopia.[352] It is mainly known fordubbing foreign content intoAmharic. Over several decades, the state television has served as the major mass media until in the late 2000s, whenEBS TV launched as the first private television channel. Moreover, numerous private channels were commenced in 2016, culminating in the growth of privately owned media companies in the country. As an example,Fana TV has been the largest TV network since its launch in 2017.
The sole internet service provider is the national telecommunications firmEthio telecom. A large portion of users in the country access the internet through mobile devices.[354] As of July 2016[update], there are around 4.29 million people who have internet access at their home as compared to a quarter of a million users a decade before that.[355] The Ethiopian government has at times intentionally shut down internet service in the country or restricted access to certain social media sites during periods of political unrest. In August 2016, following protest and demonstration in the Oromia Region, all access to the internet was shut down for a period of two days.[356] In June 2017, the government shut down access to the internet for mobile users during a period that coincided with the administration of university entrance examination. Although the reason for the restriction was not confirmed by the government,[354] the move was similar to a measure taken during the same period in 2016, after a leak of test questions.[357][358]
The first cinema was introduced in 1898, three years after the first world film was projected. Cinematic artifacts ascribed by Italian ministerFederico Ciccodicola [it] which then offered to Emperor Menelik II. The early 20th century appearance with spectacle was around 1909 and embraced by documentary or biographical films.Au de Menilek was the first film directed by Charles Martel. The first 16mm black-and-white film dedicated to coronation of EmperorZewditu, then coronation of Emperor Haile Selassie was filmed. The 1990s saw international booming of Ethiopian films. The most influential people in this era wereHaile Gerima, Salem Mekuria, Yemane Demissie, and Teshome Gabriel. Films began modernized in the 2000s and implementedAmharic language. The most internationally grossed films areSelanchi,Difret,Lamb,Prince of Love andLambadina. The modern era saw several reoccurring actors includingSelam Tesfaye,Fryat Yemane,Hanan Tarik,Mahder Assefa,Amleset Muchie andRuth Negga.
One of the most prestigious film award isGumma Film Awards held in Addis Ababa. The award, which was started in 2014, broadcast on live television in some stations.[359] Festivals includingAddis International Film Festival and theEthiopian International Film Festival showcase amateur and professional filmmakers works; the latter being voted by judges. They were established in 2007[360] and 2005 respectively.[361]
This meal consisting ofinjera and several kinds ofwat (stew) is typical of Ethiopian cuisine.
The best-knownEthiopian cuisine consists of various types of thick meatstews, known aswat in Ethiopian culture, and vegetable side dishes served on top ofinjera, a largesourdoughflatbread made ofteff flour. This is not eaten with utensils, but instead the injera is used to scoop up the entrées and side dishes. Almost universally in Ethiopia, it is common to eat from the same dish in the middle of the table with a group of people. It is also a common custom to feed others with one's own hands—a tradition referred to as "gursha".[362] Traditional Ethiopian cuisine employs nopork, as it is forbidden inEthiopian Orthodox Christian and Islamic faiths; Ethiopian Orthodox Christians also fast from meat on Wednesdays, Fridays, and leading up to Easter and Christmas.[363]
The main sports in Ethiopia aretrack and field (particularlylong distance running) and football. Ethiopian athletes have won manyOlympic gold medals in track and field, most of them in long distance running.[366]Abebe Bikila became the first athlete from aSub-Saharan country to win an Olympic gold medal when he won theMarathon at the 1960 Rome Olympic Games in a world record time of 2:15:16.[367][368]
^Through Article 5 of theConstitution of Ethiopia, which recognizes all Ethiopian languages equally, with Afan Oromo, Amharic, Somali, Tigrinya, used as working languages of regions.
^The inscriptions inAncient Greek readΑΞΩΜΙΤΩ ΒΑϹΙΛΕΥϹ ("King of Axum") andΕΝΔΥΒΙϹ ΒΑϹΙΛΕΥϹ ("King Endybis"); Greek was thelingua franca by that time, so its use in coins simplified foreign trade.
^abcdef"Country Level".2007 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia.CSA. 13 July 2010. Archived fromthe original on 8 February 2019. Retrieved18 January 2013.
^Bekerie A (2004). "Ethiopica: Some Historical Reflections on the Origin of the Word Ethiopia".International Journal of Ethiopian Studies.1 (2):110–121.ISSN1543-4133.JSTOR27828841.
^Zarins J (1990). "Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia".Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research.280 (280):31–65.doi:10.2307/1357309.JSTOR1357309.S2CID163491760.
^Caulk R (1971). "The Occupation of Harar: January 1887".Journal of Ethiopian Studies.9 (2):1–20.JSTOR41967469.
^Lipschutz M (1986).Dictionary of African historical biography. Rasmussen, R. Kent (2nd ed., expanded and updated ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 1.ISBN978-0-520-06611-3.OCLC14069361.
^abInternational Crisis Group, "Ethnic Federalism and its Discontents". Issue 153 ofICG Africa report (4 September 2009) p. 2; Italy lost over 4,600 nationals in this battle.
^Keefer, Edward C. (1973). "Great Britain and Ethiopia 1897–1910: Competition for Empire".International Journal of African Studies.6 (3):468–74.doi:10.2307/216612.JSTOR216612.
^Pankhurst R (1966). "The Great Ethiopian Famine of 1888–1892: A New Assessment".Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences.21 (2):95–124.doi:10.1093/jhmas/XXI.2.95.PMID5326887.
^Asnake Kefale,Tomasz Kamusella and Christopher Van der Beken. 2021.Eurasian Empires as Blueprints for Ethiopia: From Ethnolinguistic Nation-State to Multiethnic Federation. London: Routledge, pp. 23–34.
^Clapham, Christopher (2005) "Ḫaylä Śəllase" in Siegbert von Uhlig, ed.,Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha. Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 1062–1063.
^ʼAndārgāčaw Ṭerunah (1993).The Ethiopian revolution, 1974–1987: a transformation from an aristocratic to a totalitarian autocracy. Thomas Leiper Kane Collection. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-43082-8.OCLC25316141.
^Dagne HG (2006).The commitment of the German Democratic Republic in Ethiopia: a study based on Ethiopian sources. London: Global Lit.ISBN978-3-8258-9535-8.
^Asnake Kefale,Tomasz Kamusella and Christopher Van der Beken. 2021.Eurasian Empires as Blueprints for Ethiopia: From Ethnolinguistic Nation-State to Multiethnic Federation. London: Routledge, pp 35–43
^Stapleton TJ (2017).A History of Genocide in Africa. ABC-CLIO. p. 163.ISBN978-1-4408-3052-5.
^"Foreign Policy".Library of Congress – American Memory: Remaining Collections.
^United Nations Statistics Division,Millennium Development Goals indicators: Carbon dioxide emissions (CO2), thousand tonnes of CO2 (collected by CDIAC) Human-produced, direct emissions of carbon dioxide only. Excludes other greenhouse gases;land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF); and natural background flows of CO2 (See also: Carbon cycle)
^Parry, J (2003). Tree choppers become tree planters. Appropriate Technology, 30(4), 38–39. Retrieved 22 November 2006, from ABI/INFORM Global database. (Document ID: 538367341).
^"Government".Embassy of Ethiopia. Retrieved27 June 2025.
^See Federal High Court Establishment Proclamation No.322/2003. Federal High Courts have been placed in the following states: Afar, Benshngul/Gumuz, Gambela, Somali, and SNNPR.
^Federal Courts Proclamation 25/1996, as amended by Federal Courts (Amendment) Proclamation 138/1998, Federal Courts (Amendment) Proclamation 254/2001, Federal Courts (Amendment) Proclamation 321/2003, and Federal Courts Proclamation (Reamendment) Proclamation 454/2005 (Federal Courts Proclamation), Article 24(3).
^Mulatu Wubneh (2017). "Ethnic Identity Politics and the Restructuring of Administrative Units in Ethiopia".International Journal of Ethiopian Studies.11 (1 & 2):105–138.JSTOR26586251.
^"Land of Punt".ethiopianhistory.com. Retrieved29 January 2022.
^The political history of the Ethiopian community, and their struggle for ownership of this small monastery, is retold in Chris Proutky,Empress Taytu and Menelik II (Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 1986), pp. 247–256
^Although Bahru Zewde,A History of Modern Ethiopia, second edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2001), believes that the Suez Canal brought strategic value to the Red Sea region (p. 73), Sven Rubenson,The Survival of Ethiopian Independence (Hollywood: Tsehai,1991) argues that only with the Mahdi War did the United Kingdom interest themselves once again in Ethiopia (pp. 283ff).
^"Ethiopia's flower trade in full bloom".Mail & Guardian. 19 February 2006. Archived fromthe original on 18 April 2007. Retrieved21 June 2007.Floriculture has become a flourishing business in Ethiopia in the past five years, with the industry's exports earnings set to grow to $100-million by 2007, a five-fold increase on the $20-million earned in 2005. Ethiopian flower exports could generate an estimated $300-million within two to three years, according to the head of the government export-promotion department, Melaku Legesse.
^Averill V (31 May 2007)."Ethiopia's designs on leather trade". BBC. Retrieved21 June 2007.The label inside the luxuriously soft black leather handbag reads Taytu: Made In Ethiopia. But the embroidered print on the outside, the chunky bronze rings attached to the fashionably short straps and the oversized "it" bag status all scream designer chic.
^"Explore All Countries – Ethiopia".The World Factbook.CIA. Retrieved30 August 2021.landlocked – entire coastline along the Red Sea was lost with the de jure independence of Eritrea on 24 May 1993; Ethiopia is, therefore, the most populous landlocked country in the world
^"Global Hunger Index Scores by 2024 GHI Rank".Global Hunger Index (GHI) - peer-reviewed annual publication designed to comprehensively measure and track hunger at the global, regional, and country levels. Retrieved17 December 2024.
^Eid al-Fitr,Eid al-Adha are traditional trans-national holidays celebrated across the Islam world. Meskel being celebrated in other places but Ethiopia primary giving a huge emphasis on such.[1]
^Ramadan is a moveable holiday[1][2] Good Friday and Easter are included[3][4] of which all of whom are celebrated across the Ethiopian Christian and Muslim communities
^Irrecha celebrated by the Oromo ethnic group is a huge holiday attracting large portions of the population and is given government de-facto recognition as a holiday.[1][2]
^The 20th century has resulted in Ethiopia connecting towards the world with students of art learning the styles of western art, most notablyAfewerk Tekle a laureate and others during the end of Menelik's reign and other monarchs right after
^Ethiopia has produced many reputable contemporary painters and muralists, most notable among whom is LaureateAfewerk Tekle
^Adera T (1995). "From Apologist to Critic: The Dilemma of Bealu Girma".Northeast African Studies.2 (1):135–144.doi:10.1353/nas.1995.0030.JSTOR41931195.
^Abdullahi MD (2001).Culture and Customs of Somalia. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 170.ISBN978-0-313-31333-2.Somali music, a unique kind of music that might be mistaken at first for music from nearby countries such as Ethiopia, the Sudan, or even Arabia, can be recognized by its own tunes and styles.
^Tekle A (1994).Eritrea and Ethiopia: from conflict to cooperation. The Red Sea Press. p. 197.ISBN978-0-932415-97-4.Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia and Sudan have significant similarities emanating not only from culture, religion, traditions, history and aspirations ... They appreciate similar foods and spices, beverages and sweets, fabrics and tapestry, lyrics and music, and jewellery and fragrances.
Abir, Mordechai (1968).Ethiopia: The Era of the Princes; The Challenge of Islam and the Re-unification of the Christian Empire (1769–1855). London, England: Longmans.
Beshah, Girma, Aregay, Merid Wolde (1964).The Question of the Union of the Churches in Luso-Ethiopian Relations (1500–1632). Lisbon: Junta de Investigações do Ultramar and Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos.
Connel D, Killion T (2011).Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. The Scarecrow.ISBN978-0-8108-5952-4.
Deguefé, Taffara (2006).Minutes of an Ethiopian Century, Shama Books, Addis Ababa,ISBN99944-0-003-7.
Henze PB (2004).Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia. Shama Books.ISBN978-1-931253-28-4.
Hoskins, G. A. (1835),Travels in Ethiopia, above the second cataract of the Nile: exhibiting the state of that country, and its various inhabitants, under the dominion of Mohammed Ali.
Hugues Fontaine,Un Train en Afrique. African Train, Centre Français des Études Éthiopiennes / Shama Books. Édition bilingue français / anglais. Traduction : Yves-Marie Stranger. Postface : Jean-Christophe Belliard. Avec des photographies de Matthieu Germain Lambert et Pierre Javelot. Addis Abeba, 2012,ISBN978-99944-867-1-7. English and French.UN TRAIN EN AFRIQUE
Keller E (1991).Revolutionary Ethiopia From Empire to People's Republic. Indiana University Press.ISBN978-0-253-20646-6.
Marcus HG (1975).The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia, 1844–1913. Oxford: Clarendon. Reprint, Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 1995.ISBN1-56902-009-4.
Marcus HG (2002).A History of Ethiopia (updated ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-22479-7.
Rubenson S (2003).The Survival of Ethiopian Independence (4th ed.). Hollywood, CA: Tsehai.ISBN978-0-9723172-7-6.
Selassie I H (1999).My Life and Ethiopia's Progress: The Autobiography of Emperor Haile Selassie I. Translated by Edward Ullendorff. Chicago: Frontline.ISBN978-0-948390-40-1.
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