The nameEstonia (Estonian:Eesti[ˈeˑstʲi]ⓘ) has been connected to theAesti, a people first mentioned byRoman historianTacitus around AD 98. Some historians believe he was referring toBalts, while others think the name applied to all inhabitants of the eastern Baltic Sea region.[22]Scandinavian sagas andVikingrunestones[23] referring toEistland are the earliest sources known to use the name in its modern geographic meaning.[24]
Human settlement in Estonia became possible 13,000–11,000 years ago, when theglaciers of the lastice age melted. ThePulli settlement, dated around 9000 BC, is the oldest known settlement in Estonia.[25] The earliest human habitation during theMesolithic period is connected to theKunda culture.[26] Around 5300 BC,Neolithic ceramics of theNarva culture appear.[27] Next, theComb Ceramic culture around 3900 BC brought early agriculture and sophisticated religious art.[28] Starting from around 2800 BC, theCorded Ware culture, which included primitive farming and animal husbandry, appeared.[29] Archaeological estimates place the population within Estonian territory atc. 10,000 inhabitants in 2000 BC.[28]
The firsthillfort settlements were established in theBronze Age.[30] A transition from hunter-fisher subsistence to single-farm-based settlement started around 1000 BC, and was complete by around 500 BC.[25][31] The large amount of bronze objects indicate active communication with Scandinavian and Germanic tribes.[32] During theIron Age, the local iron production began around 200 BC; north Estonia, particularly the coastal region ofVirumaa, emerged as a trade hub. North Estonian settlers gradually moved into nearby areas in the Baltic Sea region, spreadingProto-Finnic language.[33]
The Estonian coast was a trade hub located on a major waterway, making it both a target and a starting point for many raids. Coastal Estonians, particularly theSaaremaa islanders, adopted aViking lifestyle.[34][35] Several Scandinavian sagas referred to major confrontations with Estonians, notably when 7th century "Estonian Vikings" defeated and killedIngvar Harra, theKing ofSwedes.[36][37] Inc. 1030, Grand PrinceYaroslav the Wise ofKievan Rus attempted to subjugate theChuds (as East Slavic sources called Estonians and related Finnic tribes) in southeast Estonia and captured Tartu. Chuds (Sosols) destroyed this foothold in 1061.[38][39][40][41] In 1187, Estonians,Curonians andKarelians sackedSigtuna, a major Swedish city at the time.[42][43]
Pre-Christian independent Estonian counties (maakond),c. 1200
Estonia had two regional cultures in this period. Northern and western coastal areas maintained close connections withScandinavia, while the inland had stronger ties to theBalts and theprincipality of Pskov.[44] Ancient Estonia had a professional warrior caste,[45] while international trade provided nobles wealth and prestige.[46] This era's Estonian burial sites often contain both individual and collective graves, with artefacts like weapons and jewelry reflecting the shared material culture of Scandinavia and Northern Europe.[47][48] Very little is known about the religious beliefs of medieval Estonians prior toChristianisation. A 1229chronicle mentionsTharapita as the supreme deity of the islanders of Saaremaa (Ösel).Sacred groves, particularly ofoak trees, factored prominently into pagan worship practices.[49][50]
In the early centuries AD, Estonia's first administrative subdivisions emerged, primarily the parish (Estonian:kihelkond) and the county (Estonian:maakond), usually including multiple parishes. Parishes were commonly centred on hill forts, and ruled by local nobles.[46] By the 13th century, Estonia was divided into eight major counties –Harjumaa,Järvamaa,Läänemaa,Revala,Saaremaa,Sakala,Ugandi, andVirumaa – and several smaller, single-parish counties. Counties operated independently, forming only loose defensive alliances against foreign threats.[51][52]
In 1199, PopeInnocent III declared acrusade to "defend the Christians ofLivonia".[53] The crusading GermanSwordbrothers, who had previously subjugatedLivonians,Latgalians, andSelonians, started campaigning against Estonians in 1208. The following years saw many raids and counter-raids. In 1217, the Estonians suffered a significant defeat in thebattle where their most prominent leaderLembitu, an elder ofSakala, was killed. In 1219, the armies of KingValdemar II of Denmark defeated Estonians in theBattle of Lyndanisse (Tallinn), and conquered northern Estonia.[54][55] In the uprising of 1223, Estonians were able to push the German and Danish invaders out of the whole country, except Tallinn. The crusaders soon resumed their offensive, and in 1227, Saaremaa was the last Estonian county to surrender, and convert to Christianity.[56][57]
In the 13th century, the newly Christian territory of present-day Estonia and Latvia was namedTerra Mariana; later it became known simply as Livonia.[58] North Estonia becamepart of theKingdom of Denmark. The rest was divided between Swordbrothers and theprince-bishops ofDorpat andÖsel–Wiek. In 1236, the Swordbrothers merged into the then largerTeutonic Order (becoming its regional branch, the "Livonian Order").[59] In 1343, a major anti-Germanuprising encompassed north Estonia and Saaremaa. TheTeutonic Order suppressed the rebellion by 1345, and the next year bought the Estonian lands from the king of Denmark.[60][61] The German upper-class minority consolidated their power after the unsuccessful rebellion.[62] For the subsequent centuriesLow German remained the language of the ruling elite in both Estonian cities and the countryside.[63]
Lübeck Law codex for Tallinn
Tallinn, the capital ofDanish Estonia founded on the site of Lindanise, adopted theLübeck law and received full town rights in 1248.[64] TheHanseatic League controlled trade on the Baltic Sea, and the four largest cities in Estonia became members: Tallinn, Tartu,Pärnu, andViljandi.[65] Protected by stone walls and membership in the Hansa, prosperous cities like Tallinn and Tartu often defied other rulers of the medieval Livonia.[66] In 1435, a treaty establishingLivonian Confederation was signed by representatives of Livonian Order, bishoprics, and major cities.[67]
TheReformation began in central Europe in 1517, and soon spread northward to Livonia despite some opposition by the Livonian Order.[68] Towns were the first to embrace Protestantism in the 1520s, and by the 1530s the majority of the landowners and rural population had adoptedLutheranism.[69][70] Church services were now conducted in the vernacular, which initially meantLow German, but from the 1530s onward the regular religious services were held in Estonian.[69][71]
In 1558, TsarIvan the Terrible ofRussia (Muscovy) invaded Livonia, starting theLivonian War. The Livonian Order was decisivelydefeated in 1560. The majority of Livonia accepted Polish rule, while Reval and the nobles of Northern Estonia swore loyalty to the Swedish king, and the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek sold his lands to the Danish king. Russian forces gradually conquered the majority of Livonia, but in the late 1570s the Polish-Lithuanian and Swedish armies started their own offensives and the bloody war finally ended in 1583 with Russian defeat.[72][73] As a result of the war, Northern Estonia became SwedishDuchy of Estonia, Southern Estonia became PolishDuchy of Livonia, and Saaremaa remained under Danish control.[74] Wars between Sweden and Poland-Lithuania continued until 1629, when the victorious Sweden acquired south Estonia and northern Latvia.[75] Swedengained Saaremaa from Denmark in 1645.[76] The wars cut the population of Estonia from about 250–270,000 people in the mid-16th century to 115–120,000 in the 1630s.[77]
Academia Gustaviana, nowUniversity of Tartu was founded in 1632 by King Gustavus Adolphus
The Swedish era in Estonia was marked by both religious repression and significant reforms. Initially, it brought Protestantpuritans who opposed traditional Estonian beliefs and practices, leading towitch trials and bans onfolk music.[78] While large parts of rural population remained inserfdom, legal reforms under KingCharles XI strengthened both serfs' andfree tenant farmers' land usage and inheritance rights, resulting in this period's reputation as "The Good Old Swedish Time" in historical memory.[79] KingGustav II Adolph establishedgymnasiums in Tartu (which became the university in 1632) and Tallinn.Printers were established in both towns. The beginnings of the Estonian-language public education system appeared in the 1680s, largely owing toBengt Forselius.[80] The population of Estonia grew rapidly until about 20% of the population died in theGreat Famine of 1695–97.[81]
During the 1700–1721Great Northern War, theTsardom of Russia (Muscovy) conquered the whole of Estonia by 1710.[82] The war again devastated the population of Estonia, with the 1712 population estimated at only 150,000–170,000.[83] Russian administration restored all the political and landholding rights of Baltic Germans.[84] The rights of local farmers reached their lowest point, as serfdom completely dominated agricultural relations during the 18th century.[85] Tsarist regime sought to avoid conflicts with the local nobility, and the Baltic autonomous "special order" remained largely in effect until the late 19th century, marking a distinctive period of localised governance within the Russian Empire. Although serfdom had been abolished in Estonia in 1816–1819, major reforms improving farmers' rights started only in the mid-19th century.[86]
TheEstonian national awakening began in the 1850s as several leading figures started promoting an Estonian national identity among the general populace. Widespread farm buyouts by Estonians and the resulting rapidly growing class of land-owning farmers provided the economic basis for the formation of this new "Estonian identity". In 1857Johann Voldemar Jannsen started publishing the first successful Estonian-language weekly newspaper, and began popularising the denomination of oneself aseestlane (Estonian).[87] The first nationwide movements formed, such as a campaign to establish an Estonian-language secondary school, the founding of theSociety of Estonian Literati and theEstonian Students' Society, and the firstnational song festival, held in 1869 in Tartu.[88][89][90] The nationalepicKalevipoeg was published in 1862, and 1870 saw the first performances ofEstonian theatre.[91][92] In 1878 a major split happened in the national movement. The moderate wing led byJakob Hurt focused on development of culture and Estonian education, while the radical wing led byCarl Robert Jakobson started demanding increased political and economical rights.[89]
In the 1890s, the central government of the Russian Empire launched aRussification campaign in order to tie the Baltic governorates more closely to the empire administratively and culturally.[88] Russian language replaced German and Estonian in most secondary schools and universities, and many societal activities in local languages were suppressed.[92] In the late 1890s, prominent figures likeJaan Tõnisson andKonstantin Päts rose in a new surge of nationalism. In the early 20th century, Estonians started taking over their German-run town governments.[93]During the1905 Revolution, the first legal Estonian political parties were founded. An Estonian national congress was convened and demanded the unification of Estonian areas into a single autonomous territory and an end to Russification. The unrest was accompanied by both peacefuldemonstrations and violentriots. The Tsarist government responded with a brutal crackdown; some 500 people were executed and hundreds more jailed or deported to Siberia.[94][95]
Estonian armoured train during the war of independence
On 28 November 1918Soviet Russia invaded, starting theEstonian War of Independence.[99] TheRed Army came within 30 km of Tallinn, but in January 1919, theEstonian Army, led byJohan Laidoner, went on a counter-offensive, ejecting Bolshevik forces from Estonia within a few months. Renewed Soviet attacks failed, and in spring, the Estonian army, in co-operation withWhite Russian forces, advanced into Russia andLatvia.[100][101] In June 1919, Estoniadefeated theGerman Landeswehr which had attempted to dominate Latvia. The Red Army launched afinal offensive againstNarva in late 1919, but failed to achieve a breakthrough. On 2 February 1920, theTartu Peace Treaty was signed by Estonia and Soviet Russia, with the latter pledging to permanently give up all sovereign claims to Estonia.[100][102]
Estonian Constituent Assembly, opening session on April 23, 1919
In April 1919, theEstonian Constituent Assembly was elected. They passed a sweepingland reform and adopted a highlyliberalconstitution, establishing Estonia as aparliamentary democracy.[103][104] Estonia joined theLeague of Nations in 1921.[105] Estonia enjoyed rapid economic growth during the interwar period. Land reforms improved the farmers' conditions, but the country also prospered from industrialisation and the development of oil shale mining. With independence, most economic links with Russia dissolved, but trade rapidly reoriented towards Western markets.[106] Estonia's cultural-autonomy law for ethnic minorities, adopted in 1925, was one of the most liberal of its time.[107]
TheGreat Depression strained Estonia's political system, and in 1933 the right-wingVaps movement spearheaded a constitutional reform establishing a strong presidency.[108][109] On 12 March 1934 the acting head of state,Konstantin Päts, extended a state of emergency over the entire country, under the pretext that the Vaps movement had been planning a coup. Päts ruled by decree for several years while parliament did not reconvene ("era of silence").[110] The Päts régime was relatively benign compared to other authoritarian régimes ininterwar Europe, never using violence against political opponents.[111] A 1937 referendum adopted a new constitution. In 1938, an election including opposition candidates provideda new bicameral parliament.[112] Estonia signed non-aggression pactswith the Soviet Union in 1932, andwith Germany in 1939.[113] In 1939, Estonia declared neutrality, but this proved futile inWorld War II.[114]
Ten former Estonian prime ministers and 56 government members were executed or perished in captivity of the Soviet occupation regime after 1940 (memorial plaque at theseat of government inToompea, Tallinn)
A week before the outbreak ofWorld War II, the 23 August 1939Nazi-Soviet Pact secretly assigned Estonia to theSoviet Union's sphere of influence.[115] In September 1939, during theSoviet invasion of Poland,Joseph Stalin pressured the Estonian government into signing a "mutual assistance treaty", allowing the USSR to establish military bases in Estonia.[116] On 14 June 1940, the Soviet Union instituted a full naval and air blockade on Estonia, and on 16 June, demanded free passage of theRed Army into Estonia and the establishment of a pro-Soviet government. Feeling that resistance was hopeless, the Estonian government complied and Soviet occupation began.[117][118] On 6 August 1940, Estonia was formally annexed by the Soviet Union as theEstonian SSR.[119] The USSR established a repressive terror regime in occupied Estonia, targeting the country's elite for destruction. Hundreds of people were executed and, on 14 June 1941,c. 11,000 Estonians weredeported to Russia, where most would be killed.[120][121]
The Red Army reached the Estonian borders again in early 1944, but its advance into Estonia was stopped inheavy fighting near Narva for six months by German forces, including numerous Estonian units.[130] In March, the Soviet Air Force carried out heavy bombing raidsagainst Tallinn and other Estonian towns.[131] In July, the Soviets starteda major offensive from the south, forcing the Germans to abandon mainland Estonia in September, with the Estonian islands being abandoned in November.[130] As German forces were retreating from Tallinn, the last pre-war prime ministerJüri Uluotsappointed a government headed byOtto Tief in an unsuccessful attempt to restore Estonia's independence.[132] Tens of thousands of Estonians fled westwards from the Soviets.[133] Estonia lost around one fourth of its population through war-related deaths, deportations and evacuations.[134]
The United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the majority of other Western countriesconsidered the annexation of Estonia by the Soviet Union illegal.[135]Legal continuity of the Estonian state was preserved through thegovernment-in-exile and the Estoniandiplomatic representatives which Western governments continued to recognise.[136][137] Thousands of Estonians opposing the second Soviet occupation joined a guerrilla movement known as the "Forest Brothers". The armed resistance was heaviest in the first few years after the war, but Soviet authorities gradually wore it down through attrition, and resistance effectively ceased to exist in the mid-1950s.[138] The Soviets initiated apolicy of collectivisation, but as farmers remained opposed to it a campaign of terror was unleashed. In March 1949 about 20,000 Estonianswere deported to Siberia. Collectivization was fully completed soon afterwards.[120][139]
The Soviet Union beganRussification, with hundreds of thousands ofRussians and people of otherSoviet nationalities being induced to settle in Estonia, which eventually threatened to turn Estonians into a minority in their own land.[140] In 1945 Estonians formed 97% of the population, but by 1989 their share of the population had fallen to 62%.[141] The military presence was pervasive, with closed military zones occupying around one-fifth of the Estonian land and the entire surrounding sea. Access to coastal areas required permits, rendering the Estonian people physically isolated from the world outside the USSR.[142][143] Economically, heavy industry was strongly prioritised, but this did not improve the well-being of the local population, and caused massive environmental damage through pollution.[144] Living standards under the Soviet occupation kept falling further behind nearby independent Finland.[140]
Independence restored
In theBaltic Way on 23 August 1989, two million people formed a human chain across three countries in a mass demonstration against the Soviet occupation.
The introduction ofperestroika by the Soviet government in 1987 enabled political activism in Estonia, sparking theSinging Revolution, a peaceful movement towards independence.[145] One of the first major acts of resistance was thePhosphorite War, an environmental protest against Soviet plans to establish large phosphate mines inVirumaa.[146] On 23 August 1987, theHirvepark meeting in Tallinn called for the public disclosure of the secret protocols of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact that had led to Estonia's occupation.[147][148] In 1988, new political movements emerged, including thePopular Front of Estonia, a moderate faction within the independence movement, and theEstonian National Independence Party, which became the first non-communist political party registered in the Soviet Union.[149] Theparliament of Soviet-controlled Estonia asserted the primacy of Estonian laws with theSovereignty Declaration on 16 November 1988, inspiring similar declarations across otherSoviet republics.[150][151] On 23 August 1989, two million people formed theBaltic Way, a human chain spanning Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, to demonstrate unity in pursuit of independence.[152]
In 1990, theCongress of Estonia was formed as the representative body of Estonian citizens.[153] In March 1991, areferendum was held where 78.4% of voters supported independence, and during thecoup attempt in Moscow, Estoniadeclared restoration of independence on 20 August.[154] Soviet authorities recognised Estonian independence on 6 September, and on 17 September Estonia was admitted into theUnited Nations.[155] The last units of theRussian army left Estonia in 1994.[156] In 1992 radical economic reforms were launched for switching over to a market economy, including privatisation and currency reform.[157] Estonian foreign policy since independence has been oriented towardthe West, and in 2004 Estonia joined both theEuropean Union andNATO.[158] In 2011, Estonia joined theeurozone and adopted the EU single currency.[159]
Geography
The cliff at Valaste Falls illustrates the stratigraphy of various geological eras
The Estonian coastline stretches for 3,794 km (2,357 mi) and featureslimestone cliffs along the northern coast as well as its largest islands.[161][164] Estonia includes 2,355islands, counting those in internal waters, with 2,222 in the Baltic Sea. The largest islands areSaaremaa andHiiumaa.[160] The country's terrain is predominantly flat, with an average elevation of about 50 metres (164 ft) above sea level. While plains dominate in the north and west, the south and east of Estonia are hillier.Suur Munamägi, the highest peak of the country at 318 metres (1,043 ft), is situated in theHaanja Upland.[160]
There arec. 1,560 naturallakes in Estonia;Lake Peipus andVõrtsjärv are the two largest. There are more than7,000 rivers, streams, and canals, with only ten of them exceeding 100 km (62 mi) in length. The longest rivers in Estonia include theVõhandu at 162 km (101 mi) and thePärnu at 144 km (89 mi). The rivers are primarily fed by groundwater, rainfall, and snowmelt, with each source contributing approximately one-third of the annual runoff.Bogs andmires cover about 23% of the country.[160]
Climate
Estonia has a transitionalclimate that lies betweencontinental andmaritime influences, characterised as a humid continental climate. Estonia's climate is notably milder than that of other regions at the same latitude due to the moderating effects of theNorth Atlantic Current. The prevailing weather patterns in Estonia are significantly influenced by active cyclonic activity in the northernAtlantic Ocean. This results in strong winds, precipitation, and abrupt temperature fluctuations, especially during the autumn and winter months. The westerly winds carry moist maritime air far into continental interior, leading to milder temperatures in winter and cooler conditions in summer compared to the continental areas further away from the coast. Coastal regions and islands generally enjoy a milder climate, as the Baltic Sea moderates temperatures, keeping coastal areas warmer in winter and cooler in summer.[165]
The calculated mean temperature for the country's territory ranges from 17.8 °C (64.0 °F) in July to −3.8 °C (25.2 °F) in February, with the annual average being 6.4 °C (43.5 °F).[166] The highest recorded temperature is 35.6 °C (96.1 °F) from 1992, and the lowest is −43.5 °C (−46.3 °F) from 1940.[167] The annual average precipitation is 662 millimetres (26.1 in),[168] with the daily record being 148 millimetres (5.8 in).[169] Snow cover varies significantly on different years. Prevailing winds are westerly, southwesterly, and southerly, the average annual wind speed varies between 2.1 m/s and 6.1 m/s, being smaller inland and the largest on the west coast.[161] Due to high latitude, day length varies significantly between summer and winter. In Tallinn, the longest day of the year lasts up to 18 hours and 40 minutes, while the shortest day lasts only 6 hours and 2 minutes.[165] The average monthly sunshine duration ranges from 290 hours in August, to 21 hours in December.[170] As a calculated average, Estonia receives 1830 hours of sunshine per year.[171]
Biodiversity
Scots pinePinus sylvestris is the most common tree species in Estonian forests.
Estonia is recognised as one of the most biodiverse regions in Europe, particularly for its size and latitude.[161] The country boasts a diverse array of climatic and soil conditions, as well as an abundance of both marine and freshwater ecosystems. This rich biodiversity allows for the survival of many species that have become extinct in most other European nations.[172]Protected areas of Estonia cover 19.4% of the land (or 23% of the total area incl. territorial sea). The country is home to nearly 4,000 protected natural objects including 6 national parks, 231 nature conservation areas, and 154 landscape reserves.[173]
Estonia is one of the few countries where critically endangeredEuropean Mink is present in the wild
Phytogeographically, Estonia is shared between the Central European and Eastern European provinces of theCircumboreal Region within theBoreal Kingdom. According to theWWF, the territory of Estonia belongs to theecoregion ofSarmatic mixed forests.[179] The country has a rich composition of floristic groups, with estimated 3,000algae andcyanobacteria species, 850lichens, and 600bryophytes. As of 2023, forests covered 51.5% of Estonia's land area, supporting a wide range of plant species.[180] Among these, 87 native and over 500 introduced tree and bush species have been identified, with the most common trees beingpine (41%),birch (28%), andspruce (23%).[160]Saaremaa yellow rattle isendemic toSaaremaa island and cannot be found elsewhere in the world.[181] The national flower of Estonia is thecornflower (Centaurea cyanus).[182]
The seat of the Parliament of Estonia in Toompea Castle
Estonia is a unitaryparliamentary republic where the unicameral parliament,Riigikogu, serves as the legislature andthe government acts as the executive branch.[183] The Riigikogu comprises 101 members elected for four-year terms byproportional representation, with voting rights granted to citizens over 18 years of age. The parliament approves the national government, passes legal acts and the state budget, and exercises parliamentary oversight. Additionally, uponthe president's recommendation, the Parliament appoints the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the chair of the Bank of Estonia, the Auditor General, the Chancellor of Justice, and the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Forces.[184][185]
TheGovernment of Estonia, led by thePrime Minister, is nominated by the President, subject to parliamentary approval. Estonia's political system has been marked by coalition governments, as no single party has managed to secure an absolute majority in parliament.[183] The President, Estonia's head of state, plays a mostly ceremonial role, representing the nation internationally and holding the power to proclaim or veto laws passed by the Parliament. Should a law be passed unamended after presidential veto, the President may petition the Supreme Court to review its constitutionality.[183][186] The President is elected by the Riigikogu, or by a special electoral college.[187]
Municipalities (local governments) after the 2017 administrative reform
Estonia is a unitary country with a single-tier local government system. Local affairs are managed autonomously by local governments. Since administrative reform in 2017, there are in total 79 local governments, including 15 towns and 64 rural municipalities. All municipalities have equal legal status and form part of amaakond (county), which is anadministrative subunit of the state.[195] Representative body of local authorities is municipal council, elected at general direct elections for a four-year term. Each municipal council appoints the local government.[196] For further decentralization, local governments may form rural municipalities or city districts with limited authority.[197]
Law
TheConstitution of Estonia is the fundamentallaw. It is based on five main principles: human dignity, democracy, rule of law, social state, and the Estonian identity.[198] Estonia has acivil law legal system based on the Germanic legal model.[199] The court system has a three-level structure. The first instance are county courts which handle all criminal and civil cases, and administrative courts which hear complaints about government and local officials, and other public disputes. Thesecond instance are district courts which handle appeals about the first instance decisions.[200] TheSupreme Court is thecourt of cassation, and conducts constitutional review.[201] The judiciary is independent, judges are appointed for life, and can be removed from office only when convicted of a crime.[202] The justice system has been rated among the most efficient in the EU by the EU Justice Scoreboard.[203]
Law enforcement is managed by agencies under theMinistry of the Interior. The main agency, thePolice and Border Guard Board, oversees protection of public order, investigation of criminal activities, and guarding state border, while theEstonian Internal Security Service deals with defence of the constitutional order, protection of national secrets, counterintelligence, counterterrorism, and anti-corruption.[204][205]
TheEstonian Defence Forces consist ofland forces,navy, andair force. The current national military service is compulsory for healthy men between ages of 18 and 28, with conscripts serving 8- or 11-month tours of duty, depending on their education and position provided by the Defence Forces.[227] The peacetime size of the Estonian Defence Forces is about 6,000 persons, with half of those being conscripts. The planned wartime size of the Defence Forces is 60,000 personnel, including 21,000 personnel in high readiness reserve.[228] Since 2015, the Estonian defence budget has been over 2% of GDP, fulfilling its NATO defence spending obligation.[229]
TheEstonian Defence League is a voluntary national defence organisation under management of the Ministry of Defence. It is organised based on military principles, has its own military equipment, and provides various military training for its members, including inguerilla tactics. The Defence League has 18,000 members, with an additional 11,000 volunteers in its affiliated organisations.[230][231]
Since 1995, Estonia has participated in numerous international security and peacekeeping missions, including:Afghanistan,Iraq,Lebanon,Kosovo, andMali.[239] Eleven Estonian soldiers have been killed in missions of Afghanistan and Iraq.[240]
Telecommunications, energy, textiles, chemical products, banking, services, food and fishery, timber, shipbuilding, electronics, and transportation are key sectors of the economy.[252] Historically, the locally minedoil shale was the main source of energy, contributing over 85% of energy production in the early 2010s,[253] with renewable sources like wood, peat, and biomass accounting for the remaining part of primary energy production. The share of wind energy, comprising only 6% of energy consumption in 2009,[254] has been rapidly growing in recent years.
The2008 financial crisis impacted Estonia with an initial contraction of GDP, which led to governmental budget adjustments to stabilise the economy. By 2010, the economy began to recover driven by exports, and annual industrial output increased by over 20%.[255] Real GDP growth in 2011 reached 8%, and in 2012, Estonia was the only eurozone country with a budget surplus, with national debt at 6%, among the lowest in EU. Despite economic disparities between regions – over half of the GDP is generated in the capital city Tallinn – the country has continued to perform well, including a notable first-place ranking in theEnvironmental Performance Index in 2024.[256]
Public policy
Estonia's economy continues to benefit from a transparent government and policies that sustain a high level ofeconomic freedom, ranking 6th globally and 2nd in Europe.[257][258] The rule oflaw remains strongly buttressed and enforced by an independent and efficient judicial system. A simplified tax system with flat rates and low indirect taxation, openness to foreign investment, and a liberal trade regime have supported the resilient and well-functioning economy.[259] As of May 2018[update], theEase of Doing Business Index by theWorld Bank Group places the country 16th in the world.[260] The strong focus on the IT sector through itse-Estonia programme has led to much faster, simpler and efficient public services where for example filing a tax return takes less than five minutes and 98% of banking transactions are conducted through the internet.[261][262] Estonia has the 13th lowest business bribery risk in the world, according to TRACE Matrix.[263]
After restoring independence, in the 1990s, Estonia eagerly pursued economic reform and reintegration with other Western democracies.[264] In 1994, applying the economic theories ofMilton Friedman, Estonia became one of the first countries to adopt aflat tax, with a uniform rate of 26% regardless of personal income. This rate has since been reduced several times, e.g., to 24% in 2005, 23% in 2006, and to 21% in 2008.[265] TheGovernment of Estonia adopted the euro on 1 January 2011.[266]
Transport
Cruiseferries connect Estonia to neighbouring Finland and Sweden (Tallinn, 2022).
The primary modes ofTransport in Estonia include road, rail, maritime, and air transport, each contributing significantly to the economy and accessibility of the region.Port of Tallinn is one of the largest maritime enterprises in the Baltic Sea, catering to both cargo and passenger traffic. Among the facilities is theice-free port ofMuuga, located near Tallinn, which boasts modern transhipment capabilities, a high-capacity grain elevator, chill and frozen storage, and enhanced oil tanker offloading facilities.[267] Estonian shipping companyTallink operates a fleet ofBaltic Sea cruiseferries andropax ships. Tallink is the largest passenger and cargo shipping operator in the Baltic Sea, with routes connecting Estonia to Finland and Sweden. The ferry lines to Estonian islands are operated byTS Laevad andKihnu Veeteed.[268]
Highways in Estonia are extensive, with 16,982 km of state-managed roads, including 12,716 km of paved surfaces, ensuring reliable transport across the country.[271] Major motorways such as theRoad 1 (E20),Road 2 (E263), andRoad 4 (E67), are essential for both local and international travel. Estonia has a high rate ofcar ownership, with most households owning at least one vehicle, and nearly half owning two.[272]
Estonia is relatively rich in natural resources, although many are not found in economically viable quantities or face technical and environmental challenges that hinder their extraction. The country has largeoil shale andlimestone deposits. In addition, Estonia also has large reserves ofphosphorite,pitchblende, andgranite that currently are not mined, or not mined extensively.[275] The underground resources may includegold,molybdenum,platinum,vanadium, andstrontium. Future potential resources are thought to includediatomaceous earth anduranium. There are also indications ofoil near Hiiumaa andnatural gas reserves in north Estonia. Currently, the most significant resources being exploited in Estonia are oil shale and phosphorite, along with natural building materials such assand,gravel, limestone, andclay.[276]
Oil shale region in the northeast of the country
As of 2013, theoil shale industry in Estonia was among the most developed globally,[277] supplying approximately 70% of the country's total primary energy needs and contributing about 4% to the GDP in 2012.[278][279] Additionally, significant quantities ofrare-earth oxides are found in the tailings from over 50 years ofuranium ore,shale andloparite mining atSillamäe.[280] The rising global prices for rare earth elements have made the extraction of these oxides economically viable, with Estonia currently exporting around 3,000 tonnes annually, accounting for approximately 2% of global production.[281]
Energy
The energy sector in Estonia has since the 1920s been dominated by the oil shale industry. However, the production of electricity from oil shale has declined since the 1990s.[282] The oil shale industry, concentrated inIda-Viru County, produces around 73% of the entire country's electricity.[283] In recent years, however, there has been a significant growth in renewable energy generation, alongside ongoing discussions regarding the potential future use of nuclear energy. The largest producer of electricity and thermal energy in Estonia is the state-owned companyEesti Energia. Oil shale remains the primary energy source in Estonia, primarily utilised for electricity generation and heating, particularly in Narva. In addition to electricity, Estonia has been increasingly producing oil from this resource, with production volumes steadily rising. Other energy sources include peat, firewood, hydroelectric and wind energy, solar panels, and imported natural and liquefied gas, as well as coal.[284]
Estonia enjoys one of the lowest dependencies on energy imports within the EU. This is largely due to the high share of domestic energy sources, including oil shale and an increasing proportion of renewable energy, such as biomass, wind, solar power, and improved energy efficiency in production, transmission, and consumption. The diversity of suppliers for electricity, gas, liquid fuels, and solid fuels has contributed to competitive, market-based energy prices for consumers.[285] In a notable policy shift, Estonia has prohibited the import of pipeline gas from Russia as of 2023. This follows a decade during which Russian gas accounted for 100% of the country's consumption. As of 2023, Estonia's gas consumption was recorded at 3.42 TWh, supported by a strategic gas reserve of 1 TWh located in theInčukalns Municipality underground gas storage facility in Latvia, equating to approximately 29% of the country's average annual gas needs.[285]
Wind power
There has also been increased investment in renewable energy sources,.[286][287][288] Wind power is steadily expanding; current production is nearly 60 MW, with an additional 399 MW of projects underway and over 2,800 MW proposed in areas such asLake Peipus and the coastal regions ofHiiumaa.
The development of offshore wind expanded rapidly in the 2020s. In summer 2024 Norwegian firm Deep Wind Offshore won two auctions (Saare 2.1 and 2.2) to build offshore wind farms totalling over 1GW of generating capacity.[289] Estonian and French renewables developers Sunly and Valorem joined the DWO consortia, now namedTuul Energy.[290]
In January 2025 French offshore wind developer Oxan Energy, founded by former staff ofShell, won the auction for build a 900 floating offshore wind farm 60 km west ofSaaremaa island.[291]
Nuclear power
While Estonia, along with Lithuania, Poland, and Latvia, considered participating in the construction of theVisaginas nuclear power plant in Lithuania,[292][293] the project faced delays and challenges, prompting Eesti Energia to shift its focus to shale oil production, viewed as more profitable.[294]
Historically, Estonia has been the northernmost country that can grow grain for export.[297]In the 1990s, agricultural significance in the economy declined sharply as large Soviet-era collective farms were dismantled and privatised. In recent years, large enterprises have once again become dominant, while smaller farms focus on niche markets, organic farming, and rural tourism. Recent years have seen an increase in Estonia's cultivated land, with approximately 1.05 million hectares of arable land and 0.24 million hectares of natural grasslands recorded by 2019.[298][299] Estonia has one of the largest average farm sizes within the EU at 62 hectares per farm, with around 78% of farmland owned by entities managing at least 100 hectares – far above the EU average of 49% for this ownership category.[300] Estonia ranks second in Europe, followingAustria, in the proportion of farmland underorganic cultivation.[301]
About 95% of the fish caught in Estonia's waters comes from the Baltic Sea, with the remainder sourced from inland waters. Distance fishing is also practiced. The Baltic Sea fisheries distinguish between migratory species, such as sprat, herring, cod, and salmon, which are subject to EU quotas, and local species, such as perch and pike, which are managed domestically. Despite stringent regulations, Estonian fish stocks face significant challenges, including habitat loss, overfishing, and decreased spawning areas. In response, Estonia has introduced conservation initiatives to protect vulnerable fish species and enhance breeding programmes.[302]
The forestry sector is a significant contributor to Estonian economy. The Estonian government aims to establish sustainable annual harvest levels that align with EU climate objectives, while the industry pushes for higher harvest quotas to ensure profitability and job security. Conversely, conservationists advocate for reduced logging to safeguard biodiversity and fulfill climate commitments. Currently, the government maintains a harvest threshold of at least 9.5 million m3 to balance economic impacts and environmental goals. However, inventories indicate serious over-harvesting, leading to intensified debates about how to sustain the timber industry while protecting Estonia's rich biodiversity.[303] Since at least 2009, logging has increased significantly across both private and protected lands, including national parks.[304] While Estonia's logging practices need to be reduced to enhance biodiversity and achieve carbon sequestration goals, the sector continues to expand; in 2022, the state forestry agencyRMK reported a record profit of 1.4 billion euros.[305]
Industry and services
Industry is the backbone of Estonia's economy. The manufacturing sector is the largest segment of industry, accounting for over 15% of the GDP. This sector provides employment for around one-fifth of the workforce, equating to about 120,000 individuals. Additionally, the export turnover of industrial enterprises typically represents around two-thirds of Estonia's total export volume.[306] Food, construction, and electronic industries are currently among the most important branches of Estonia's industry.[307] Key branches within Estonia's industry include food production, construction, and electronics, with the construction industry alone employing over 80,000 people in 2007, roughly 12% of the total workforce.[308] The machinery and chemical industries are also significant, primarily concentrated inIda-Viru County and aroundTallinn.
The Estonian manufacturing sector comprises 7,981 enterprises, representing 8% of all businesses in the country. This sector employs over 107,000 individuals, accounting for 22% of all employed persons in Estonia. In 2020, the total profit margin for manufacturing companies was 4.9%. A significant portion of the sector consists of micro-enterprises, with 78% of manufacturing firms employing fewer than 10 workers, while only 3% of companies have more than 100 employees (totaling 215 firms). Approximately 17% of manufacturing enterprises report sales revenues exceeding 1 million euros, and exports contribute to 52% of the sector's total sales revenue.[309] The most significant branch of the manufacturing sector is machinery production, which accounts for approximately 25% of total output. Other key industries include wood and paper production (20%), food processing (15%), chemical production (10%), metalworking (13%), and light industry, which constitutes less than 5% of the total output. In 2018, Estonia's exported goods amounted to €10.4 billion, representing 72% of the country's total merchandise exports. The manufacturing sector employed around 124,000 individuals and contributed 15.4% to Estonia's GDP, with 20% of the GDP growth that year stemming from this sector.[310][311]
In terms of value added, the manufacturing sector's share of the Estonian economy is slightly below the EU average (at 15%). However, Estonia has one of the highest proportions of employment in manufacturing among EU countries, with nearly one-fifth of the workforce engaged in this sector. Manufacturing is the largest employer in Estonia, with significant job creation occurring in 2019, particularly in the production of electrical equipment and the repair and installation of machinery and equipment. The wood industry saw the highest growth in production volume during that year. The major industrial sectors by employment are wood processing, food production, and metalworking. The sector is heavily reliant on external markets, with over 60% of its output being exported. Key export markets include Finland and Sweden, which also account for more than 60% of foreign direct investments in Estonia's manufacturing industry.[312]
In the 2000s, there was a notable shift in Estonia's economic structure, with the services sector's contribution to GDP increasing while agriculture and industry saw a decline in their share. Currently, services account for 68.1% of Estonia's GDP and employ 76.8% of the workforce. Despite its growth, certain service-related sectors often offer some of the lowest wages in the economy.[313]
Estonia has established a strong information technology sector, a development partly attributed to theTiigrihüpe project initiated in the mid-1990s. The country is often cited as one of the most "wired" and advanced in Europe concerning e-government initiatives.[319] Thee-residency programme, launched in 2014, extended various digital services to non-residents. Notable tech startups includeSkype,[320]Bolt,GrabCAD,Fortumo andWise. The country reportedly holds the highest startup-per-person ratio globally, with 1,291 startups as of January 2022, including sevenunicorn companies, translating to nearly one startup for every 1,000 Estonians.[321][322][323]
Space science in Estonia is anchored by theTartu Observatory. Since the 2000s, Estonia has re-engaged with the space sector, signing a cooperation treaty with theEuropean Space Agency in 2007 and officially joining in 2015, leading to collaborative projects such as theGaia mission and the successful launches of research satellitesESTCube-1 in 2013 andESTCube-2 in 2023.
Estonia is the first state to sponsor personalgenetic testing services in order to minimise, and prevent, genetically caused health problems, e.g., adult-onset diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. The government also plans to provide lifestyle advice in a pilot project based on theDNA data of 100,000 Estonians.[324]
Demographics
Population of Estonia 1960–2019. The changes are largely attributed to immigration from, and emigration to, Russia and other parts of the former USSR.[325]
Major changes in thedemographics of Estonia have taken place after the country restored independence in 1991.[326] Some of the more notable changes have taken effect in the level of stratification and distribution of family income. TheGini coefficient has held steadily higher than the EU average (31 in 2009),[327] although it has dropped. The registered unemployment rate in 2024 was 7.6%.[328]
Estonia's population on 1 January 2025 (1,369,285 people) was about 3% higher than in the previous census of 2021. 211 different self-reported ethnic groups are represented in the country's population and 243 different mother tongues are spoken. Census data indicate that Estonia has continued to stand out among European countries for its highly educated population – 43% of the population aged 25–64 have a university education, which puts Estonia in 7th place in Europe (Estonian women rank 3rd).[329]
More people of different ethnic origin live in Estonia than ever before, but the share of Estonians in the population has remained stable over the three censuses (2000: 68.3%; 2011: 69.8%; 2021: 69.4%).[330][329] Estonia is generally ethnically homogeneous, with 13 of its 15 counties having over 80% ethnic Estonian populations; the most homogeneous county isHiiumaa, where 98.4% of residents are ethnic Estonians. However, inHarju County, which includes the capitalTallinn, andIda-Viru County, the demographic makeup is more diverse due to a significant Russian-speaking minority. Ethnic Estonians make up around 60% of the population in Harju County and only about 20% in Ida-Viru, where the Russian-speaking community forms nearly 70% of residents. Thisethnic Russian minority comprises about 24% of Estonia's total population, largely a result of Soviet-era immigration, and exists alongside recent Ukrainian refugees who arrived in 2022, now representing around 6% of the national population.[331]
Historically, Estonia, as well as Latvia, had a significantBaltic Germans community. In the 12th and 13th centuries,Catholic German traders and crusaders (seeOstsiedlung) began settling in the eastern Baltic territories.[332] TheBaltic German nobility significantly influenced Estonian culture. German language maintained its leading position until the Russification policy of the tsarist era at the end of the 19th century, and sometimes even longer. The German-speaking population mostly left Estonia in 1939.
Historically, large parts of Estonia's northwestern coast and islands have been populated by the indigenous ethnic group ofEstonian Swedes. In recent years, the number of Swedish residents in Estonia has risen again, numbering almost 500 people by 2008, owing to property reforms enacted in the early 1990s. In 2004, theIngrian Finnish minority in Estonia elected a cultural council and was granted cultural autonomy. The Estonian Swedes minority similarly received cultural autonomy in 2007.[333] There is also aRoma community of approximately 1,000–1,500.[334]
As of 2 July 2010[update], 84.1% of Estonian residents were citizens of Estonia, 8.6% were citizens of other countries and 7.3% were "citizens with undetermined citizenship".[335] Estonia has also acceptedquota refugees under the migrant plan agreed upon by EU member states in 2015.[336] The 2008United Nations Human Rights Council report called "extremely credible" the description of thecitizenship policy of Estonia as "discriminatory".[337] Estonian Russians have developed their own identity – more than half of the respondents recognised that Estonian Russians differ noticeably from the Russians in Russia.[338]The Estonian Cultural Autonomy law that was passed in 1925 was unique in Europe at that time.[339] Cultural autonomies could be granted tominorities numbering more than 3,000 people with longstanding ties to the Republic of Estonia. The Law on Cultural Autonomy for National Minorities was reinstated in 1993.
According to the Estonian government's regulations established in 2004, populated areas in Estonia are categorised as follows:küla (village),alevik (small borough or rarely small town),alev (town), andlinn (city). Aküla is typically a sparsely populated area or a densely populated settlement with fewer than 300 permanent residents. Analevik generally has at least 300 permanent residents, while bothalev andlinn are classified as densely populated areas with at least 1,000 residents. As of 2024, Estonia has 47 cities, 13 towns, 186 small boroughs, and 4,457 villages, with Tallinn being the capital and largest city, located on the northern coast along theGulf of Finland.[340]
In the 21st century, Estonia has continued to experience urbanisation. More than 70% of Estonia's population now reside in cities and towns.[341] The population density in Estonia averages around 30.6 people per square km, with significant regional variations. The lowest density is found onHiiumaa at 10.2 people per square km, whileHarju County, which includes Tallinn, has the highest density at 121.3 people per square km.[342]
Estonia's constitution guarantees freedom of religion, separation of church and state, and individual rights to privacy of belief and religion.[344] Estonia is one of theleast religious countries in the world, with majority of the population claiming to beirreligious.[345][346]
Traditionally, the largest religious denomination in the country has been theLutheran church, to which 86,030 people (or 7.7% of the population) still belong, according to self-reported data of the 2021 census.[347] However, since the 2011 census, Eastern Orthodoxy has surpassed Lutheranism in terms of church membership in Estonia. While not being astate church, theEstonian Evangelical Lutheran Church had historically been thenational church. An agreement giving preferential status to the Lutheran church ended in 2023.[348] Before World War II, around 80% of the population of Estonian were Protestants, and the vast majority Lutheran,[349] followed byBaptists and other Protestant branches. Religious affiliation in Estonia has decreased substantially over the past century.[350]
Approximately 29% of Estonia's population identified with a religion according to data collected from the 2021 census. In contrast, 58% of Estonians reported having no religious affiliation. Among those who identify with a religion, 93% consider themselves Christians, a slight decrease from 97% in 2011. Other religions, including Islam, represent smaller but gradually growing segments; for instance, the Muslim population of Estonia grew from 0.1% to 0.5%.[351]
A 2015 study byPew Research found that the 45% of respondents who declared themselves to bereligiously unaffiliated, were divided between 9% as atheists, 1% as agnostics, and 35% as believing in "nothing in particular".[352]
The official language isEstonian. Estonian is spoken by 84% of the population: 67% of people speak it as their mother tongue and 17% as a foreign language.
TheSouth Estonian dialects, which includeMulgi,Tartu,Võro andSeto, are spoken by nearly 100,000 people. Although they aredistinct from "standard" (North) Estonian, they are typically regarded as dialects or regional forms of Estonian, rather than separate languages.[353]After English, Russian is now the second most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia. Most of the native Russian-speakers are first and second generation immigrants residing in the capital city Tallinn and several other industrial urban areas (most notably inNarva, where majority of the population are ethnic Russians). Due to its dominant role in the recent past (Russian language was a compulsory subject in all schools in Soviet-occupied Estonia), many Estonians, particularly those now aged 50 to 80, can still speak good Russian. By 2010, nearly two-thirds of the native Russian-speakers of Estonia had learnt to speak Estonian proficiently.[354]
Historically, Swedish-speaking communities lived in Estonia from the 13th century until the 20th century, particularly along the coast and on the islands. After the establishment of Estonian independence, these communities were officially recognised, with Swedish used as an administrative language in majority-Swedish municipalities. However, during World War II, most Swedish speakers fled to Sweden ahead of the Soviet occupation in 1944, leaving only a small number of elderly Swedish speakers in Estonia. Swedish influence is still evident, particularly in regions likeNoarootsi Parish ofLääne County, where bilingual Estonian-Swedish place names and signs remain.[355][356]
The most common foreign languages learnt by Estonian students are English, Russian, German, and French.[357]English is the most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia today. According to 2021 census data 76% of the population can speak a foreign language. In the 2021 census 17% of the native speakers of standard Estonian reported that they can also speak a dialect of Estonian.[358][329]
Estonian Sign Language, officially adopted in 2007 under the Estonian Language Act, is the primary sign language of Estonia and is used by an estimated 4,500 people.
The University of Tartu is one of the oldest universities in Northern Europe and the highest-ranked university in Estonia
In education, Estonia ranks as one of the top-performing countries of the world. According to the 2018PISA report, Estonian students placed 1st in Europe and globally ranked 5th in reading, 8th in mathematics, and 4th in sciences.[359][360] Estonia also boasts one of the highest adult education levels in thedeveloped world, with 89% of adults aged 25–64 having completed at least a high school degree.[361] TheUniversity of Tartu, the nation's oldest university, has ranked 285th globally according to the QS World University Rankings.[362]
The roots of formal education in Estonia can be traced back to the 13th and 14th centuries, with the establishment of the firstmonastic andcathedral schools.[363] The publication of the first Estonian-language primer in 1575 further contributed to the development of education. The University of Tartu, founded in 1632, played a central role in higher education, with courses offered in Estonian for the first time in 1919. Following the restoration of independence in the 1990s, Estonia offered free public education in Russian, but in 2024, the country began transitioning all public schools to Estonian-only instruction, underscoring a renewed focus on the national language and culture.[364]
The Estonian education system is structured into four levels: pre-school, basic, secondary, and higher education, with schools spanning general, vocational, and hobby-focused categories.[365] In addition to traditional state and municipal schools, the country supports a range of private and public educational institutions, totaling 514 schools as of 2023.[366] Estonia has been a pioneer in educational technology, launching theTiigrihüpe programme to equip schools with computers and internet access, significantly advancing digital literacy and connectivity within the education sector.[367]
Estonian higher education follows a three-tier structure of bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees, with some integrated programmes combining bachelor's and master's levels.[368] Estonian public universities, such as the University of Tartu,Tallinn University of Technology,Tallinn University, andEstonian University of Life Sciences, enjoy considerable autonomy, including control over academic curricula, admissions criteria, budgets, and governance.[369] Estonia also has a mix of public and private universities, with theEstonian Business School standing as the country's largest private institution.
Culture
Estonian culture emphasizes indigenous practices and can be said to have a strong connection to the land and community. Contemporary Estonian society is marked by a strong commitment to individual liberty, advocating for the principles of limited government, and resistance to central power and corruption. TheProtestant work ethic remains a cultural mainstay, stressing diligence and self-reliance. Education is highly valued in Estonia, with free access to schooling being a highly prized institution. According to a study, Estonians are among the top in the world in terms of book ownership per capita.[370]
As of 2023, Estonia boasted 170 museums, whose collections collectively hold over 10 million artefacts.[371]
One significant cultural tradition in Estonia is thesauna, along with its accompanying rituals. Thesmoke sauna tradition ofVõru County, distinguished by its lack of a chimney and the use of smoke in the heating process, was included in theUNESCO list ofintangible cultural heritage in 2014.[372]
Estonia observes 11public holidays public holidays with mandatory days off and celebrates 12 additional national holidays each year.[373] The EstonianNational Day is theIndependence Day, observed on 24 February to commemorate the 1918 Estonian Declaration of Independence. Another pivotal holiday,Võidupüha, is celebrated on 23 June in remembrance of the Estonian victory in the 1918–1920 War of Independence. This holiday merges with theJaanipäev (Midsummer Day) on 24 June, one of the oldest and most widely celebrated events. OnMidsummer Eve, Estonians traditionally gather aroundbonfires near thevillage swing to enjoy dancing, singing, and other festivities.Christmas (jõulud) is also deeply cherished in Estonia, its traditions blending ancientwinter solstice customs with Christian and modern holiday practices.[374]
Music and dance
Music of Estonia has a rich history that traces back to early mentions in medieval chronicles, with the first known reference appearing inSaxo Grammaticus'Gesta Danorum around 1179.[375] The oldest form of folk songs in Estonia, known asregilaulud (runic songs), followed a distinct poetic metre shared with other Baltic Finns.[376]
Estonian folk music also has a strong tradition of instrumental accompaniment, featuring thekannel, a zither-like instrument, along with thetorupill, an Estonianbagpipe. Thetorupill was primarily used for dance music.[377] Other instruments, such as thefiddle,concertina, andaccordion, also contribute to the folk music repertoire, particularly for traditional dances. Medieval Estonian music reflects the influence of church music, with surviving liturgical manuscripts showcasingearly musical notation. By the 14th century, organs were common in Estonian churches, while secular musicians played instruments like thetorupill and drums at community gatherings.[378]
First held in 1869, the nationwideEstonian Song Festival is the country's most notable musical traditions. Held every five years at theTallinn Song Festival Grounds, the festival regularly draws up to 100,000 participants.[379]
Estonian composerArvo Pärt has achieved global acclaim for his minimalist, deeply spiritual works. Pärt became the world's most performed living composer from 2010 to 2018.[380]
Estonian rock and pop music emerged in the mid-1960s, with early bands performing in underground scenes to avoid scrutiny by Soviet occupation authorities. After regaining independence, Estonia won theEurovision Song Contest in 2001 with "Everybody" (performed byTanel Padar andDave Benton).
Estonian folk dance is characterised by repetitive motifs and simple movement patterns. Earliest written records of Estonian folk dance date to the 12th century. Elements from these ancient ritual dances are preserved in circle and chain dances, some of the oldest forms in Estonian dance.[381][382] The nationwideEstonian Dance Festival is held once every four years in Tallinn.[383]
TheEstonian folklore andmythology are believed to be rooted in pre-Christian beliefs.[384] While much of Estonia's ancient mythology is scattered across fragments of oral tradition, some of the oldest myths are believed to have survived in traditionalrunic songs. One such song narrates the birth of the world, where a bird lays three eggs, from which emerge theSun, theMoon, and theEarth.[385]
The mythical heroes and giants, such asKalevipoeg andSuur Tõll, are central to Estonian folklore. Kalevipoeg, a mythological giant hero, is often portrayed defending the land from invaders, and many natural landmarks are said to be traces of his deeds. "The Dawn and Dusk" (Koit ja Hämarik) is considered one of the most beautiful Estonian myths with authentic origin.[386]Jakob Hurt launched a nationwide folklore collection campaign in the 1880s, thanks to which 12,400 pages of folklore were collected by volunteers. Inspired by Hurt,Matthias Johann Eisen amassed a monumental 90,000 pages of folklore by the early 20th century. These collections are preserved by theEstonian Folklore Archives, one of the largest such institutions in the world.[387][388]
The oldest records of written Estonian date from the 13th century.[389] Written Estonian poetry emerged during 17th–18th centuries, with authors such asReiner Brockmann andKäsu Hans. Despite this, few notable works of literature were written until the 19th century and the beginning of an Estonian national awakening.Kristjan Jaak Peterson, the first renowned Estonian poet, emerged in the early 19th century, inspiring figures such asFriedrich Robert Faehlmann andFriedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald to preserve Estonian folk poetry and produce theKalevipoeg, the Estoniannational epic.[390] It is written in theKalevala tetrameter, a largely lyrical form of folk poetry based on syllabic quantity.[391] The national awakening also spurred the rise of national romantic poetry, withLydia Koidula as its foremost figure.[392]
The end of 1800s saw a rise of many poets and novelists who wrote in Estonian, notablyJuhan Liiv,August Kitzberg andEduard Vilde. Around 1905, aneo-romantic literary movementYoung Estonia (Noor-Eesti) led by poetGustav Suits and including writersFriedebert Tuglas,Villem Grünthal-Ridala, andJohannes Aavik amongst others, had an aesthetic programme that followed the trends of Finnish, French, German, Scandinavian and Italian literature of the time, comprising elements ofImpressionism,Symbolism andExpressionism.Oskar Luts was an early 20th century prose writer whose works, especially the lyrical school novelKevade (Spring), remain popular to this day.[393] In the early 20th century, Estonian poetry gained new depth with theSiuru group, a literary movement embracing modernism and sensuality; its members includedMarie Under,Henrik Visnapuu, andFriedebert Tuglas. The 1930s saw the emergence ofArbujad, a group of poets known for their new, introspective and philosophical style.[394]
In the independent Estonia of the 1920s and 1930s, literature flourished, with highly regarded prose works by authors likeA. H. Tammsaare andKarl Ristikivi shaping the era. Tammsaare's social epic and psychological realistpentalogy,Truth and Justice, captured the evolution of Estonian society from a poor farmer community to an independent nation while following man's everlasting struggle with existential questions.[395][396] Many writers fled Estonia in 1944 from Soviet rule. Between 1944 and 1990, exiled writers published 267 novels, 181 poetry collections, and 155 memoirs, reflecting their determination to preserve national identity.[397]
During the Soviet occupation,Jaan Kross became Estonia's best-known and most-translated writer, as he skillfully used historical allegory to convey the resilience of Estonian identity.[398][399]Jaan Kaplinski andMats Traat also held a significant place in then Estonian literature.[400]
Among the most popular writers of the late 20th and early 21st centuries areTõnu Õnnepalu andAndrus Kivirähk, who uses elements of Estonian folklore and mythology, deforming them into the absurd and grotesque.[401]
Estonian philosophy reflects a unique worldview and national identity, accentuating interpretations grounded in original Estonian terms rather than Latin or Germanic loanwords. This approach is based on the idea, championed by Estonian thinkers likeUku Masing, that philosophical conceptsderive meaning from theiretymology and cultural context. Additionally, Estonian philosophy incorporates semiotic elements, influenced by the works ofJakob von Uexküll andJuri Lotman.[402][403][404]
In the Neoclassical period, landscape painting gained prominence among Estonian artists, both at home and abroad. This era also saw the emergence of other genres like mural painting, miniature painting, glass painting, and watercolours, often featuring antique themes or Estonian nature scenes. Famous painters of this era includeGustav Adolf Hippius,Karl August Senff andJulie Wilhelmine Hagen-Schwarz.[407][408] The 19th and early 20th centuries saw also a rise in national themes, led by painters likeJohann Köler, who embraced Estonian landscapes and traditions.
During the 1918–1940 period of independent Estonia, artists increasingly integrated contemporary European avant-garde influences. The founding of thePallas Art School (1919–1940) in Tartu marked a turning point, giving rise to a generation of artists includingKonrad Mägi,Nikolai Triik,Kristjan Raud, and printmakerEduard Wiiralt, whose works captured both the avant-garde spirit and uniquely Estonian sensibilities.[409]
When the Soviet army occupied Estonia in 1944, many Estonian artists fled westwards. Under theStalinist regime, art was heavily regulated, withSocialist Realism promoted as the official style, while Western influences were discouraged. However, by the 1960s, restrictions began to be relaxed. A breakthrough came with the formation of theANK '64 collective, a group of artists who broke from Soviet themes and embraced personal, fantastical worlds. Leading figures such asJüri Arrak andTõnis Vint explored modernist aesthetics, emphasising individual expression and imaginative realism. In 1966, the first Estonian modernist art works got the official permission from the Soviet authorities to be displayed in public exhibitions. By the 1970s, Estonian art had grown distinct from Moscow's official styles, embracing a modernism that highlighted personal vision and cultural identity.[410]
Since the 1990s, Estonian art has diversified significantly with the rise of photography, video, and conceptual art. This period saw the decline of centralised art funding and management, alongside the establishment of new media centres at the Estonian Academy of Arts. Artists such asToomas Vint became known internationally, and Estonian video artists gained exposure in venues like theSão Paulo andVenice Biennales.[411]
August Weizenberg is considered one of the founders of Estonian sculpture. His eclectic style, primarily based on classicism, favoured marble. Another Estonian sculptor,Amandus Adamson, shifted towards a more relaxed style that incorporated elements of realism.Anton Starkopf, a prominent sculptor of the 1930s, developed a unique style using granite and explored diverse themes, including erotic undertones. The Soviet occupation halted the progress of sculpture in the 1940s. However, since the 1960s Estonian sculpture was able to increase output and use innovative approaches again.[412]
Thearchitecture of Estonia reflects a blend of northern European styles shaped by local traditions and materials. The Estonian traditional rural architecture is distinguished by single farms set within open landscapes, typically including a separatesauna building.timber andboulders have been used extensively in traditional Estonian structures. Therehielamu was a typical farmhouse style until the 19th century, a few examples of it still remain in some Estonian villages. Estonia is also home to manyhill forts from pre-Christian times,[413][414] medieval castles, churches, and countryside structures such asmanor houses,mills, andinns.[415]
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries,National Romantic style emerged, seeking inspiration from traditional Estonian architecture. After 1918, the newly independent Estonia sought to express its identity through new buildings. The Estonian parliament building atToompea, designed by architectsEugen Habermann andHerbert Johanson and completed in 1922,[417] combines a traditionalist exterior with a uniqueExpressionist interior, making it the world's only Expressionist parliament building.[418] During the 1930s, Estonia saw the development of a distinctive style ofstripped Classicism, influenced by architects such asAlar Kotli andEdgar Johan Kuusik. Meanwhile,Functionalism gained popularity inNõmme and Pärnu, particularly through the work ofOlev Siinmaa.[419]
Under the 1944-1991 Soviet occupation, the architecture was heavily influenced bySoviet urban planning. The 1980s marked a resurgence of Estonian architectural identity, with postmodernist architects drawing from 1930s styles. Since regaining independence, Estonia has embraced diverse architectural trends, especially in Tallinn's business districts. ArchitectVilen Künnapu has emerged as a leading figure.[420]
Estonian theatre has a long and evolving history, with the earliest recorded performances dating back to the 16th century. By 1784, the German playwrightAugust von Kotzebue helped establish an amateur theatre in Tallinn, and five years later, the Estonian language made its debut on stage in Kotzebue's playThe Father's Expectation. TheTallinn City Theatre, opened in 1809, became Estonia's first professional theatre, performing German but also some Estonian-language works.[421] However, a distinctly Estonian theatre culture began to take shape with the development of song and drama societies, including the landmark 1870 performance ofLydia Koidula'sCousin from Saaremaa by theVanemuine Cultural Society, which marked the birth of Estonian national theatre.[422]
The early 20th century saw the professionalisation of Estonian theatre, with theVanemuine in Tartu and theEstonia Theatre in Tallinn formally becoming professional institutions in 1906. Led by directorKarl Menning, Vanemuine began to stage high-quality productions that emphasisednaturalism and ensemble performance. Plays by Estonian writersAugust Kitzberg,Oskar Luts andEduard Vilde were staged among world classics. Estonia Theatre, meanwhile, became known for its star actors, includingTheodor Altermann,Paul Pinna, andErna Villmer, as well as for its pioneering work in opera and operetta from 1908 onwards. The 1920s and 1930s brought further diversity to the theatre scene with the establishment of the Workers' Theatre in Tallinn, known for its social critique, and the experimental Morning Theatre, which explored expressionism. New regional theatres also appeared in Viljandi and Narva. A vibrant and multifaceted theatre tradition has continued through the period of Soviet control and into the modern era.[423]
Themedia of Estonia is characterised by a diverse array of outlets and notable press freedom. Media landscape includes numerous weekly newspapers and magazines, along with nine domestic television channels, and a variety of radio stations. Estonia consistently ranks among the top nations for press freedom, achieving 6th place on thePress Freedom Index globally in 2024 and 8th place in 2023, according toReporters Without Borders.[430][431][432] Two main news agencies operate in Estonia: theBaltic News Service (BNS), a private news agency established in 1990 that covers the Baltic states, and ETV24, part ofEesti Rahvusringhääling, Estonia's publicly funded broadcaster. Established in 2007,Eesti Rahvusringhääling consolidates radio and television services previously provided byEesti Raadio andEesti Televisioon under the Estonian National Broadcasting Act.[433][434]
Estonia issued its first private TV licences in 1992 and launched its first private radio station in 1990.Õnne 13, Estonia's longest-running television series since its debut in 1993, portrays everyday lives of Estonian families through changing societal landscapes, remaining the most popular TV show in Estonia.[435] Estonian television and entertainment is marked by a unique blend of satire and cultural critique,dark humour and social commentary, often pushing the boundaries of what is considered acceptable.
Traditionally, Estonian food was based on what was available from local farms and the sea, a custom still evident in modern Estonian dishes. For centuries, hunting and fishing were integral to Estonian food culture, and while these are now enjoyed more as hobbies, locally sourced meats and fish remain central to traditional Estonian meals. Most common staples includerye bread, pork, potatoes, and dairy products. Estonians especially value fresh ingredients in spring and summer, incorporating berries, herbs, and vegetables, while winter meals often feature preserved jams,pickled cucumbers and mushrooms. Fish plays a significant role:Baltic herring (räim), along withsprat (kilu), are often served in spiced forms as appetisers or sandwiches, such as the popularkiluvõileib, anopen sandwich with sprats on rye bread.[436]
A hallmark of Estonian meals isblack bread made from rye, acclaimed for its rich flavour and dense texture, and served with almost every meal as an open sandwich base or an accompaniment to soups and main dishes. Cow dairy products hold an important place in Estonian cuisine, with milk, and its derivatives valued both as beverages and culinary ingredients.
Alcoholic beverages in Estonia are traditionally beer-based, with locally brewedbeers being the preferred drink to accompany meals. Estonianfruit wines made from apples and berries are also enjoyed alongsidevodka (viin) and other distilled spirits.[437]
Since 1920, Estonia hasparticipated at the Olympic Games and earned medals in athletics, cross-country and freestyle skiing, weightlifting, wrestling, rowing, fencing, cycling and other sports. Estonia's best Olympic rankings were 12th at the 2006 Winter Olympics and 14th at the 1936 Summer Olympics. With the total number ofall-time Olympic medals won (44) in relation to its population (1.4 million) as of 2025, Estonia is the 12th most successful country in the world in terms of accumulated Olympic medals per capita.[438]
Estonia maintains extensive indoor and outdoor facilities for a range of sports.[439] Popular team sports includebasketball,volleyball, andfootball. A unique contribution to global sports from Estonia iskiiking.[440]
^Estonia has beende facto independent in 1918–1940, and since 1991. Throughout foreign occupations in 1940–1991 the continuity ofde jure independence was preserved by Estonian diplomats and government-in-exile.
^See, for instance, the position expressed byEuropean Parliament, which condemned "the fact that the occupation of these formerly independent and neutral States by the Soviet Union occurred in 1940 following the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact, and continues".European Parliament (13 January 1983)."Resolution on the situation in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania".Official Journal of the European Communities. C 42/78.
^Mägi, Marika (2018).InAustrvegr: The Role of the Eastern Baltic in Viking Age Communication across the Baltic Sea.Brill E. pp. 144–145.ISBN9789004363816.
^Harrison, D. & Svensson, K. (2007). Vikingaliv. Fälth & Hässler, Värnamo.ISBN91-27-35725-2
^Jonuks, Tõnno (2022). Kõrge, Eha (ed.).Eesti muinasusundid (in Estonian). Postimehe Kirjastus. p. 302.ISBN9789916698730.
^abKriiska, Aivar; Lang, Valter; Mäesalu, Ain; Tvauri, Andres; Valk, Heiki (2020). Lang, Valter; Ratas, Jaana (eds.).Eesti ajalugu. I, Eesti esiaeg (in Estonian). University of Tartu Institute of History and Archaeology. p. 396.ISBN978-9985-4-1241-1.
^Mägi, Marika (2015). "Chapter 4. Bound for the Eastern Baltic: Trade and Centres AD 800–1200". In Barrett, James H.; Gibbon, Sarah Jane (eds.).Maritime Societies of the Viking and Medieval World. Maney Publishing. pp. 45–46.ISBN978-1-909662-79-7.
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^Miljan, Toivo (2015).Historical Dictionary of Estonia. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 80–81.ISBN9780810875135.
^Raun, Toivo U. (2002).Estonia and the Estonians: Second edition, updated. Hoover Press. p. 128.ISBN9780817928537.
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^Bell, Imogen (2002).Central and South-Eastern Europe 2003. Psychology Press. p. 244.ISBN9781857431360.
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^Lane, Thomas; Pabriks, Artis; Purs, Aldis; Smith, David J. (2013).The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Routledge. p. 154.ISBN9781136483042.
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^Hiden, John; Salmon, Patrick (2014).The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century. Routledge. p. 110.ISBN978-1-317-89057-7.
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^Mälksoo, Lauri (2003).Illegal Annexation and State Continuity: The Case of the Incorporation of the Baltic States by the USSR. Leiden – Boston: Brill.ISBN90-411-2177-3.
^abMiljan, Toivo (2015).Historical Dictionary of Estonia. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 110.ISBN978-0-8108-7513-5.
^Gatrell, Peter; Baron, Nick (2009).Warlands: Population Resettlement and State Reconstruction in the Soviet-East European Borderlands, 1945–50. Springer. p. 233.ISBN978-0-230-24693-5.
^The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence by Anatol Lieven p424ISBN0-300-06078-5
^Lane, Thomas; Pabriks, Artis; Purs, Aldis; Smith, David J. (2013).The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Routledge. p. 34.ISBN978-1-136-48304-2.
^Smith, David (2013).Estonia: Independence and European Integration. Routledge. p. 36.ISBN978-1-136-45213-0.
^Miljan, Toivo (2004).Historical Dictionary of Estonia. Scarecrow Press. p. 275.ISBN978-0-8108-6571-6.
^abRaun, Toivo U. (2002).Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated. Hoover Press. p. 159.ISBN978-0-8179-2853-7.
^Kangilaski, Jaan; et al. (2005). Salo, Vello (ed.).The white book: losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes, 1940–1991. Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers. p. 18.ISBN9789985701959.
^Kasekamp, Andres (2010).A History of the Baltic States. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 138.ISBN978-0-230-36450-9.
^Kangilaski, Jaan; et al. (2005). Salo, Vello (ed.).The white book: losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes, 1940–1991. Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers. p. 30.ISBN9789985701959.
^Kangilaski, Jaan; et al. (2005). Salo, Vello (ed.).The white book: losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes, 1940–1991. Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers. p. 37.ISBN9789985701959.
^Feldbrugge, F. J. Ferdinand Joseph Maria; Van den Berg, Gerard Pieter; Simons, William Bradford (1985).Encyclopedia of Soviet Law. BRILL. p. 461.ISBN9789024730759.
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^Raun, Toivo U. (2002).Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated. Hoover Press. p. 174.ISBN9780817928537.
^Purs, Aldis (2013).Baltic Facades: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania since 1945. Reaktion Books. p. 335.ISBN9781861899323.
^abTaagepera, Rein (2013).The Finno-Ugric Republics and the Russian State. Routledge. p. 128.ISBN9781136678011.
^Spyra, Wolfgang; Katzsch, Michael (2007).Environmental Security and Public Safety: Problems and Needs in Conversion Policy and Research after 15 Years of Conversion in Central and Eastern Europe. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 14.ISBN9781402056444.
^Stöcker, Lars Fredrik (2017).Bridging the Baltic Sea: Networks of Resistance and Opposition during the Cold War Era. Lexington Books. p. 72.ISBN9781498551281.
^Miljan, Toivo (2015).Historical Dictionary of Estonia. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 227.ISBN9780810875135.
^Backes, Uwe; Moreau, Patrick (2008).Communist and Post-Communist Parties in Europe: Schriften Des Hannah-Arendt-Instituts Für Totalitarismusforschung 36. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 9.ISBN9783525369128.
^Vogt, Henri (2005).Between Utopia and Disillusionment: A Narrative of the Political Transformation in Eastern Europe. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 20–22.ISBN9781571818959.
^Hirvepark 1987: 20 aastat kodanikualgatusest, mis muutis Eesti lähiajalugu. [Peatoimetaja Tõnu Tannberg; eessõna: Tunne Kelam; fotod: Taaniel Raudsepp; intervjuud: Anneli Kivisiv] Tallinn: Kultuuriselts Hirvepark, 2007. ISBN 9789949153510
^Viktor Niitsoo.Müürimurdjad: MRP-AEG ja ERSP lugu. Tallinn: [Ortwil], 2002. ISBN 9985897137
^Simons, Greg; Westerlund, David (2015).Religion, Politics and Nation-Building in Post-Communist Countries. Ashgate Publishing. p. 151.ISBN9781472449719.
^Smith, David (2013).Estonia: Independence and European Integration. Routledge. pp. 46–48.ISBN9781136452130.
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^Smith, David (2013).Estonia: Independence and European Integration. Routledge. p. 54.ISBN9781136452130.
^Gill, Graeme (2003).Democracy and Post-Communism: Political Change in the Post-Communist World. Routledge. p. 41.ISBN9781134485567.
^Dillon, Patricia; Wykoff, Frank C. (2002).Creating Capitalism: Transitions and Growth in Post-Soviet Europe. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 164.ISBN9781843765561.
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^Ó Beacháin, Donnacha; Sheridan, Vera; Stan, Sabina (2012).Life in Post-Communist Eastern Europe after EU Membership. Routledge. p. 170.ISBN9781136299810.
^Miljan, Toivo (2015).Historical Dictionary of Estonia. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 18–19.ISBN9780810875135.
^Vinkel, Priit (2012). "Information Security Technology for Applications".Laud P. (eds) Information Security Technology for Applications. NordSec 2011. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 7161. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 7161.Springer Publishing. pp. 4–12.doi:10.1007/978-3-642-29615-4_2.ISBN978-3-642-29614-7.
^Pesti, Cerlin; Randma-Liiv, Tiina (April 2018)."Estonia". In Thijs, Nick; Hammerschmid, Gerhard (eds.).Public administration characteristics and performance in EU28.Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. pp. 252–255.doi:10.2767/74735.ISBN9789279904530.
^Heydemann, Günther; Vodička, Karel (2017).From Eastern Bloc to European Union: Comparative Processes of Transformation since 1990.Berghahn Books. p. 12.ISBN9781785333187.
^Rohemäe, Maria-Ann (27 April 2014)."Välisoperatsioonidel on hukkunud 11 Eesti sõdurit" [Eleven Estonian soldiers have been killed in foreign operation] (in Estonian). Eesti Rahvusringhääling. Retrieved28 December 2019.
^Rofer, Cheryl K.; Kaasik, Tõnis (2000).Turning a Problem into a Resource: Remediation and Waste Management at the Sillamäe Site, Estonia. Volume 28 of NATO science series: Disarmament technologies. Springer. p. 229.ISBN978-0-7923-6187-9.
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^Edovald, Triin; Felton, Michelle (2010).World and Its Peoples: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland.Marshall Cavendish. p. 1066.ISBN9780761478966.It is usually said that Estonia is a Protestant country; however, the overwhelming majority of Estonians, some 72 percent, are nonreligious. This is in part, the result of Soviet actions and repression of religion. When the Soviet Union annexed Estonia in 1940, church property was confiscated, many theologians were deported to Siberia, ... religion was actively persecuted in Estonia under Soviet rule 1944 until 1989, when some measure of tolerance was introduced.
^"Ajaloost: Koolihariduse algusest" [From history: About the beginning of school education] (in Estonian). University of Tartu. 24 March 2010. Retrieved14 October 2013.
^Pallas 100. Kunstikool ja kultus = Pallas 100. The art school and its legend / [tekstide autorid: Tiina Abel, Joanna Hoffmann, Hanna-Liis Kont. .. jt. ; koostajad, toimetajad: Joanna Hoffmann, Hanna-Liis Kont]. – Tartu : Tartu Kunstimuuseum, 2019.ISBN9789949722594
^"Churches".VisitEstonia.com. Retrieved12 September 2022.
^Alttoa, K. (2003).Mõningaid Valjala ja Kaarma kiriku ehitusloo probleeme. Saaremaa Muuseum, kaheaastaraamat 2001–2002 (3−27). Kuressaare: Saaremaa Muuseum.
^Viirand, Tiiu (2004).Estonia. Cultural Tourism. Kunst Publishers. p. 107.ISBN9949-407-18-4.
^"Toompea Castle". Riigikogu (Parliament of Estonia). Retrieved10 September 2013.
^Mart Kalm.Eesti 20. sajandi arhitektuur = Estonian 20th century architecture – Tallinn : Sild, 2002.ISBN9985939816
![Location of Estonia (dark green) – in Europe (green & dark grey) – in the European Union (green) – [Legend]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aEU-Estonia.svg)
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