Essential oils are compodes ofhydrophobic volatileorganic compounds, usually in liquid form, obtained fromplant material. Essential oils are also known asvolatile oils,ethereal oils,aetheroleum, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted, such asoil of clove. An essentialoil is essential in the sense that the oil contains thefragrance or essence of the plant.[1] The term "essential" used here doesnot indicate that it is nutritionally required in the diet, as withessential amino acid oressential fatty acid.[2]
Essential oils, according to ISO,[3] are produced either bysteam distillation, by mechanical manipulation of the rind of the fruits of the genusCitrus (also called cold pressing), or bydry distillation. Other methods, such as solvent extraction, are not accepted and, in fact, result in different perfumed products (pommades, concretes, and absolutes). They are used inperfumes,cosmetics,soaps,air fresheners and other products, forflavoring food and drink, and for adding scents to household cleaning products.[4]
Essential oils are often used foraromatherapy. Improper use of essential oils may cause harm including allergic reactions, inflammation and skin irritation. Children may be particularly susceptible to the toxic effects of improper use.[5][6] Essential oils can be toxic if ingested or absorbed through the skin.[6]
Essential oils such aslavender,peppermint,tea tree oil,patchouli, andeucalyptus are distilled. Raw plant material, consisting of theflowers,leaves,wood,bark,roots,seeds, orpeel, is put into analembic (distillation apparatus) connected to a steam generator (indirect steam distillation) or over water (direct steam distillation). As the water is heated, the steam passes through the plant material, vaporizing the volatile compounds. The vapors flow through acondenser, where they condense back to liquid, which is then collected in the receiving vessel, also called aFlorentine Flask.
Mostcitrus peel oils are expressed mechanically orcold-pressed.[7] Due to the relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils are obtained asbyproducts of the citrus industry.
Estimates of total production of essential oils are difficult to obtain. One estimate, compiled from data in 1989, 1990, and 1994 from various sources, gives the following total production, in tonnes, of essential oils for which more than 1,000 tonnes were produced.[8]
Taken by mouth, many essential oils can be dangerous in high concentrations. Typical effects begin with a burning feeling, followed by salivation.[9] Different essential oils may have drastically different pharmacology. Some act as local anestheticcounterirritants and, thereby, exert anantitussive (cough suppressing) effect.[9][10] Many essential oils, particularlytea tree oil, may causecontact dermatitis.[11][12][13][14] Menthol and some others produce a feeling of cold followed by a sense of burning.
In Australia essential oils (mainly eucalyptus) have been increasingly causing cases of poisoning, mostly of children. In the period 2014–2018, there were 4,412 poisoning incidents reported inNew South Wales.[15]
Essential oils can be used in aromatherapy by using essential oil diffusers
An overview of systematic reviews found that while aromatherapy has been studied for conditions likeanxiety,depression, andpain, the evidence is generally of poor quality and not convincing enough to support its effectiveness.[16] Use of essential oils may cause harm including allergic reactions and skin irritation.[17] There has been at least one case of death.[5]
The effectiveness of aromatherapy has been studied in preliminary research forsleep disorders[18] and anxiety.[19]
Research has shown that some essential oils have potential as a naturalpesticide. In case studies, certain oils have been shown to have a variety of deterring effects on pests, specifically insects and select arthropods.[20] These effects may include repelling, inhibiting digestion, stunting growth,[21] decreasing rate of reproduction, or death of pests that consume the oil. However, the molecules within the oils that cause these effects are normally non-toxic for mammals. These specific actions of the molecules allow for widespread use of these "green" pesticides without harmful effects to anything else other than pests.[22] Essential oils that have been investigated include rose, lemon grass, lavender, thyme, peppermint, basil, cedarwood, and eucalyptus.[23]
Although they may not be the perfect replacement for all synthetic pesticides, essential oils have prospects for crop or indoor plant protection, urban pest control,[24] and marketed insect repellents, such as bug spray. Certain essential oils have been shown in studies to be comparable, if not exceeding, in effectiveness toDEET, which is currently marketed as the most effective mosquito repellent. Although essential oils are effective as pesticides when first applied in uses such as mosquito repellent applied to the skin, it is only effective in the vapor stage. Since this stage is relatively short-lived, creams and polymer mixtures are used in order to elongate the vapor period of effective repellency.[20]
In relation with their food applications, although these oils have been used throughout history as food preservatives, it was in the 20th century when essential oils were considered asGenerally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) by the United States’Food and Drug Administration (FDA).[25]
Some essential oils are effectiveantimicrobials and have been evaluated for food incorporationin vitro. However, actual deployment is rare because much higher concentrations are required in real foods. Some or all of this lower effectiveness is due to large differences betweenculture medium and foods in chemistry (especially lipid content), viscosity, and duration of inoculation/storage.[28]
Balsam of Peru, an essential oil derived fromMyroxylon plants, is used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance, and in animal care products.[29] However, national and international surveys identified balsam of Peru among the "top five" allergens most commonly causingpatch test allergic reactions in people referred todermatology clinics.[30][31][32]
Most eucalyptus oil on the market is produced from the leaves ofEucalyptus globulus. Steam-distilled eucalyptus oil is used throughout Asia, Africa, Latin America and South America as a primary cleaning/disinfecting agent added to soaped mop and countertop cleaning solutions; it also possesses insect and limited vermin control properties.[34] Note, however, there are hundreds of species of eucalyptus, and perhaps some dozens are used to various extents as sources of essential oils. Not only do the products of different species differ greatly in characteristics and effects, but also the products of the very same tree can vary grossly.[35]
Lavender oil has long been used in the production ofperfume.[36] However, studies have shown it can be estrogenic and antiandrogenic, causing problems for prepubescent boys and pregnant women, in particular.[37] Lavender essential oil is also used as an insect repellent.[38]
There are two major species of rose whose petals used for the production ofRose oil;Rosa damascena andRosa centifolia.[39] Rose oils can be classified according to their botanical name, their place of origin and their extraction process.Steam-distilled rose oil is known as "rose otto", while the solvent extracted oil is known as "rose absolute". Rose otto is extracted through hydro-distillation, in which Rosa damascena petals are slowly heated with water. The heat causes the petals to release the essential rose oil. When cooled, the oil (rose otto) floats to the surface of the water (rose hydrosol). In contrast, rose absolute is solvent-extracted. Rose petals are combined with an organic solvent in a slowly rotating drum to draw out the aromatic matter from the flowers. After the solvent is evaporated, the waxy substance remaining is called rose concrete. Rose concrete is filtered with ethanol alcohol to remove waxes and non-aromatic components and leave behind the liquid known as rose absolute.[40]
The potentialtoxicity of essential oil is related to the toxicity of specific chemical components of the oil, and to its level or grade of purity.[6] Industrial users of essential oils should consult thesafety data sheets to determine the hazards and handling requirements of particular oils.[6]
Some essential oils, even at extremely low levels, can pose health threats for pregnant women, those who are breastfeeding, those with estrogen-dependent cancers or individuals with epilepsy.[41][4]Essential oil use in children can pose a danger when misused because of their thin skin and developing livers.[42] This might cause them to be more susceptible to toxic effects than adults.[6]
Some essential oils can cause severe irritation, provoke anallergic reaction and, over time, provetoxic to the liver. If ingested or rubbed into the skin, essential oils can be toxic, causing confusion, choking, loss of muscle coordination, difficulty in breathing,pneumonia,seizures, and possibly severe allergic reactions orcoma.[6]
Some essential oils, including many of thecitrus peel oils, arephotosensitizers, increasing vulnerability of the skin to sunlight.[43]
Theflash point of each essential oil is different. Many of the common essential oils, such as tea tree, lavender, and citrus oils,[44][45][46] are classed asClass 3 Flammable Liquids, as they have a flash points at or below 60 °C.[47]
Estrogenic andantiandrogenic activity have been reported byin vitro study oftea tree oil andlavender essential oils. Two published sets of case reports suggest that lavender oil may be implicated in some cases ofgynecomastia, an abnormal breast tissue growth in prepubescent boys.[48][49] The European Commission's Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety dismissed the claims against tea tree oil as implausible, but did not comment on lavender oil.[50] In 2018, aBBC report on a study stated that tea tree and lavender oils contain eight substances that when tested in tissue culture experiments, increasing the level ofestrogen and decreasing the level oftestosterone. Some of the substances are found in "at least 65 other essential oils". The study did not include animal or human testing.[51]
Exposure to essential oils may causecontact dermatitis.[12][13][14] Essential oils can be aggressive toward rubbers and plastics, so care must be taken in choosing the correct handling equipment. Glass syringes are often used, but have coarse volumetric graduations.Chemistry syringes are ideal, as they resist essential oils, are long enough to enter deep vessels, and have fine graduations, facilitating quality control. Unlike traditional pipettes, which have difficulty handling viscous fluids, the chemistry syringe, also known as a positive displacement pipette, has a seal and piston arrangement which slides inside the pipette, wiping the essential oil off the pipette wall.
The internal use of essential oils can pose hazards to pregnant women, as some can beabortifacients or cause fetal damage, and thus should not be used during pregnancy.[41]Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, cats in particular.[53]
Concern aboutpesticide residues in essential oils, particularly those used therapeutically, means many practitioners of aromatherapy buyorganically produced oils. Not only are pesticides present in trace quantities, but also the oils themselves are used in tiny quantities and usually in high dilutions. Where there is a concern about pesticide residues in food essential oils, such as mint or orange oils, the proper criterion is not solely whether the material is organically produced, but whether it meets the government standards based on actual analysis of its pesticide content.[54]
Some essential oils should not be used by pregnant or breastfeeding women, because they can beabortifacients, cause fetal damage, or disrupt hormones.[41] Key components of essential oils and whole essential oils do not always have the same hormonal effects. Minor compounds in whole oils may have both individual or group (synergistic) effects.[55]Some essential oils may contain impurities or additives that may be harmful.[56] Some uses of essential oils may be safe duringpregnancy (e.g. smelling lavender to reduce stress[57]), but care must be taken when selecting quality and brand.
Sensitivity to certain smells may cause pregnant women to have adverse side effects with essential oil use, such as headache,vertigo, and nausea. Pregnant women often report a heightened sensitivity to smells and taste,[58] and essential oils can cause irritation and nausea if ingested.[6]
The following table lists theLD50 or median lethal dose for common oils; this is the dose required to kill half the members of a tested animal population. LD50 is intended as a guideline only, and reported values can vary widely due to differences in tested species and testing conditions.[59]
In 2002,ISO published ISO 4720 in which thebotanical names of the relevant plants are standardized.[60] The rest of the standards with regards to this topic can be found in the section of ICS 71.100.60.[61]
The resins of aromatics and plant extracts were retained to producetraditional medicines and scented preparations, such as perfumes and incense, includingfrankincense,myrrh, cedarwood, juniper berry and cinnamon.[62][better source needed]Essential oils have been used infolk medicine over centuries. The Persian physicianIbn Sina, known as Avicenna in Europe, was first to derive the fragrance of flowers from distillation,[63] while the earliest recorded mention of the techniques and methods used to produce essential oils may beIbn al-Baitar (1188–1248), anArabAl-Andalusian (Muslim Spain)physician,pharmacist andchemist.[64]
Rather than refer to essential oils themselves, modern works typically discuss specific chemical compounds of which the essential oils are composed, such as referring tomethyl salicylate rather than "oil of wintergreen".[65][66]
^abRana P, Pathania D, Gaur P, Patel SK, Bajpai M, Singh NT, Pandey R, Shukla SV, Pant AB, Ray RS, Dwivedi A (May 2025). "Regulatory frameworks for fragrance safety in cosmetics: a global overview".Toxicological Research.41 (3):199–220.PMC 12021755.PMID40291114.
^abPosadzki P, Alotaibi A, Ernst E (2012). "Adverse effects of aromatherapy: A systematic review of case reports and case series".The International Journal of Risk & Safety in Medicine.24 (3):147–61.doi:10.3233/JRS-2012-0568.PMID22936057.
^Linskens H, Adams R, Crespo M, Jackson J, Deans S, Dobson H, Dunlop P, Erdelmeier C, Ghosh A, Hammond E (2012).Essential Oils and Waxes. Molecular Methods of Plant Analysis. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 105.ISBN978-3-642-84023-4. RetrievedDecember 29, 2017.
^Kaddu S, Kerl H, Wolf P (2001). "Accidental bullous phototoxic reactions to bergamot aromatherapy oil".Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.45 (3):458–61.doi:10.1067/mjd.2001.116226.PMID11511848.
^Diaz A, Luque L, Badar Z, Kornic S, Danon M (2016). "Prepubertal gynecomastia and chronic lavender exposure: report of three cases".J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab.29 (1):103–107.doi:10.1515/jpem-2015-0248.PMID26353172.S2CID19454282.
^"More evidence essential oils 'make male breasts develop'".BBC News. BBC. 18 March 2018. Retrieved18 March 2018.A suspected link between abnormal breast growth in young boys and the use of lavender and tea tree oils has been given new weight, after a study found eight chemicals contained in the oils interfere with hormones.
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