The name of Spain (España) comes fromHispania, the name used by the Romans for theIberian Peninsula and its provinces during theRoman Empire. The etymological origin of the term Hispania is uncertain, although the Phoenicians referred to the region asi-shphan-im, possibly meaning "Land of Rabbits" or "Land of Metals".[17]Jesús Luis Cunchillos [es] andJosé Ángel Zamora, experts in Semitic philology at the Spanish National Research Council (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, CSIC), conducted a comparative philological study between several Semitic languages and hypothesise that the Phoenician name translates as "land where metals are forged", having determined that the name originated in reference to the gold mines of the Iberian Peninsula.[18] There have been a number of accounts and hypotheses about its origin:
Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the termspan is thePhoenician wordspy, meaning "toforge metals". Therefore,i-spn-ya would mean "the land where metals are forged".[19] It may be a derivation of the PhoenicianI-Shpania, meaning "island of rabbits", "land of rabbits" or "edge", a reference to Spain's location at the end of the Mediterranean; Roman coins struck in the region from the reign ofHadrian show a female figure with a rabbit at her feet,[20] andStrabo called it the "land of the rabbits".[21] The word in question actually means "Hyrax", possibly due to the Phoenicians confusing the two animals.[22]
There is also the claim that "Hispania" derives from theBasque wordEzpanna, meaning "edge" or "border", another reference to the fact that the Iberian Peninsula constitutes the southwest corner of the European continent.[23]
Archaeological research atAtapuerca indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated byhominids 1.3 million years ago.[24]
Modern humans first arrived in Iberia from the north on foot about 35,000 years ago.[25] The best-known artefacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the paintings in theAltamira cave of Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were created from 35,600 to 13,500BCE byCro-Magnon.[26][27] Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of thelast ice age.
The two largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman conquest were theIberians and theCelts. The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side of the peninsula. The Celts inhabited much of the interior and Atlantic sides of the peninsula.Basques occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountain range and adjacent areas; Phoenician-influencedTartessians flourished in the southwest; andLusitanians andVettones occupied areas in the central west. Several cities were founded along the coast byPhoenicians, and trading outposts and colonies were established byGreeks in the East. Eventually, Phoenician-Carthaginians expanded inland towards the meseta; however, due to the bellicose inland tribes, the Carthaginians settled on the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula.
During theSecond Punic War, roughly between 210 and 205 BCE, the expandingRoman Republic captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast. Although it took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete theconquest of the Iberian Peninsula, they retained control of it for over six centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and theRoman road.[28]
The cultures of the pre-Roman populations were graduallyRomanised (Latinised) at different rates depending on what part of the peninsula they lived in, with local leaders being admitted into the Roman aristocratic class.[i][29]
Hispania (the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula) served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbours exported gold,wool,olive oil, and wine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. EmperorsHadrian,Trajan,Theodosius I, and the philosopherSeneca were born in Hispania.[j] Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century CE, and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century.[29] Most of Spain's present languages and religions, as well as the basis of its laws, originate from this period.[28] Starting in 170 CE, incursions of North-AfricanMauri in the province ofBaetica took place.[30]
TheGermanicSuebi andVandals, together with theSarmatianAlans, entered the peninsula after 409, weakening the Western Roman Empire's jurisdiction over Hispania. The Suebi established a kingdom in north-western Iberia, whereas the Vandals established themselves in the south of the peninsula by 420 before crossing over to North Africa in 429. As the western empire disintegrated, the social and economic base became greatly simplified; the successor regimes maintained many of the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity and assimilation into the evolving Roman culture.
TheByzantines established an occidental province,Spania, in the south, with the intention of reviving Roman rule throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited underVisigothic rule.
From 711 to 718, as part of the expansion of theUmayyad Caliphate which hadconquered North Africa from theByzantine Empire, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Muslims from across the Strait of Gibraltar, resulting in the collapse of the Visigothic Kingdom. Only a small area in the mountainous north of the peninsula stood out of the territory seized during the initial invasion. TheKingdom of Asturias-León consolidated upon this territory. Other Christian kingdoms, such asNavarre andAragon in the mountainous north, eventually surged upon the consolidation of counties of the CarolingianMarca Hispanica.[31] For several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian-controlled areas of the peninsula was along theEbro andDouro valleys.
Conversion toIslam proceeded at an increasing pace. Themuladíes (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have formed the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.[32][33]
A series ofViking incursions raided the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula in the 9th and 10th centuries.[34] The first recorded Viking raid on Iberia took place in 844; it ended in failure with many Vikings killed by the Galicians'ballistas; and seventy of the Vikings' longships captured on the beach and burned by the troops of KingRamiro I of Asturias.
In the 11th century, the Caliphate of Córdoba collapsed, fracturing into a series of petty kingdoms (Taifas),[35] often subject to the payment of a form ofprotection money (Parias) to the Northern Christian kingdoms, which otherwise undertook a southward territorial expansion. The capture of the strategic city ofToledo in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms.[36] The arrival from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of theAlmoravids and theAlmohads achieved temporary unity upon the Muslim-ruled territory, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, and partially reversed some Christian territorial gains.
TheKingdom of León was the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries. In 1188, the first form (restricted to the bishops, the magnates, and 'the elected citizens of each city') of modern parliamentary session in Europe was held inLeón (Cortes of León).[37] TheKingdom of Castile, formed from Leonese territory, was its successor as strongest kingdom. The kings and the nobility fought for power and influence in this period. The example of the Roman emperors influenced the political objective of the Crown, while the nobles benefited fromfeudalism.
Muslim strongholds in theGuadalquivir Valley such as Córdoba (1236) andSeville (1248) fell to Castile in the 13th century. TheCounty of Barcelona and theKingdom of Aragon entered in a dynastic union and gained territory and power in the Mediterranean. In 1229,Majorca was conquered, so wasValencia in 1238. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the North-AfricanMarinids established some enclaves around the Strait of Gibraltar. Upon the conclusion of theGranada War, theNasrid Sultanate of Granada (the remaining Muslim-ruled polity in the Iberian Peninsula after 1246) capitulated in 1492 to the military strength of theCatholic Monarchs, and it was integrated from then on in the Crown of Castile.[38]
Late 16th-century Seville, the harbor enjoying the exclusive right to trade with the New World
In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage of their monarchs, Isabella I and Ferdinand II, respectively. In 1492, Jews were forced to choose between conversion to Catholicism or expulsion;[39] as many as 200,000 Jews wereexpelled from Castile and Aragon. The year 1492 also marked the arrival ofChristopher Columbus in theNew World, during a voyage funded by Isabella. Columbus's first voyage crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands, beginning the European exploration and conquest of the Americas.
TheTreaty of Granada guaranteed religious tolerance towards Muslims,[40] for a few years before Islam was outlawed in 1502 in Castile and 1527 in Aragon, leading the remaining Muslim population to become nominally ChristianMoriscos. About four decades after theWar of the Alpujarras (1568–1571), over 300,000moriscos were expelled, settling primarily in North Africa.[41]
Diachronic map of the Spanish Empire
The unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of their sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained a separate country socially, politically, legally, and in currency and language.[42][43]
Through exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and inheritance, theSpanish Empire expanded across vast areas in the Americas, the Indo-Pacific, Africa as well as the European continent (including holdings in the Italian Peninsula, theLow Countries and theFranche-Comté). The so-calledAge of Discovery featured explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of newtrade routes across oceans, conquests and the beginnings of Europeancolonialism.Precious metals, spices, luxuries, and previously unknown plants brought to the metropole played a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the globe.[45] The cultural efflorescence witnessed during this period is now referred to as theSpanish Golden Age. The expansion of the empire caused immense upheaval in the Americas as the collapse of societies and empires and new diseases from Europe devastated American indigenous populations. The rise ofhumanism, theCounter-Reformation and new geographical discoveries and conquests raised issues that were addressed by the intellectual movement now known as theSchool of Salamanca, which developed the first modern theories of what are now known asinternational law and human rights.
"TheComuneros Padilla, Bravo and Maldonado in thePatíbulo", byAntonio Gisbert, 1860
TheProtestant Reformation increased Spain's involvement in religiously charged wars, forcing ever-expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean.[46] By the middle decades of a war- andplague-ridden 17th-century Europe, the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of theHoly Roman Empire reverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognise theseparation of Portugal and the United Provinces (Dutch Republic), and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wideThirty Years' War.[47] In the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, during which it surrendered several small territories to France and England; however, it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th century.
The decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of the 18th century. TheWar of the Spanish Succession was a wide-ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, and was to cost the kingdom its European possessions and its position as a leading European power.[48]
During this war, a new dynasty originating in France, theBourbons, was installed. The Crowns of Castile and Aragon had been long united only by the Monarchy and the common institution of the Inquisition'sHoly Office.[49] A number of reform policies (the so-calledBourbon Reforms) were pursued by the Monarchy with the overarching goal of centralised authority and administrative uniformity.[50] They included the abolishment of many of the old regional privileges and laws,[51] as well as the customs barrier between the Crowns of Aragon and Castile in 1717, followed by the introduction of new property taxes in the Aragonese kingdoms.[52]
The 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The predominant economic policy was an interventionist one, and the State also pursued policies aiming towards infrastructure development as well as the abolition of internal customs and the reduction of export tariffs.[53] Projects of agricultural colonisation with new settlements took place in the south of mainland Spain.[54]Enlightenment ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy.
Ferdinand VII swears on the 1812 Constitution before the Cortes in 1820.
In 1793, Spain went to war against the revolutionary newFrench Republic as a member ofthe first Coalition. The subsequentWar of the Pyrenees polarised the country in a reaction against thegallicised elites and following defeat in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 at thePeace of Basel in which Spain lost control over two-thirds of the island ofHispaniola. In 1807, a secret treaty betweenNapoleon and the unpopular prime minister led to a new declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. French troops entered the country to invade Portugal but instead occupied Spain's major fortresses. The Spanish king abdicated and a puppet kingdom satellite to the French Empire was installed withJoseph Bonaparte as king.
The2 May 1808 revolt was one of many uprisings across the country against the French occupation.[55] These revolts marked the beginning of a devastatingwar of independence against the Napoleonic regime.[56] Further military action by Spanish armies,guerrilla warfare and an Anglo-Portuguese allied army, combined withNapoleon's failure on the Russian front, led to the retreat of French imperial armies from the Iberian Peninsula in 1814, and the return ofKing Ferdinand VII.[57]
During the war, in 1810, a revolutionary body, theCortes of Cádiz, was assembled to coordinate the effort against the Bonapartist regime and to prepare a constitution.[58] It met as one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish empire.[59] In 1812, aconstitution for universal representation under a constitutional monarchy was declared, but after the fall of the Bonapartist regime, the Spanish king dismissed the Cortes Generales, set on ruling as anabsolute monarch.
General and statesmanBaldomero Espartero, a key political figure in the 19th century
The French occupation of mainland Spain created an opportunity for overseascriollo elites who resented the privilege towardsPeninsular elites and demandedretroversion of the sovereignty to the people. Starting in 1809 the American colonies began a series of revolutions and declared independence, leading to theSpanish American wars of independence that put an end to the metropole's grip over theSpanish Main.Attempts to re-assert control proved futile with opposition not only in the colonies but also in the Iberian peninsula and army revolts followed. By the end of 1826, the only American colonies Spain held wereCuba andPuerto Rico. The Napoleonic War left Spain economically ruined, deeply divided and politically unstable. In the 1830s and 1840s,Carlism (a reactionary legitimist movement supportive of an alternative Bourbon branch), fought against the government forces supportive of QueenIsabella II's dynastic rights in theCarlist Wars. Government forces prevailed, but the conflict betweenprogressives andmoderates ended in a weak early constitutional period. The 1868Glorious Revolution was followed by the 1868–1874 progressiveSexenio Democrático (including the short-livedFirst Spanish Republic), which yielded to a stable monarchic period, theRestoration (1875–1931).[60]
In the late 19th century nationalist movements arose in the Philippines and Cuba. In 1895 and 1896 theCuban War of Independence and thePhilippine Revolution broke out and eventually the United States became involved. TheSpanish–American War was fought in the spring of 1898 and resulted in Spain losing the last of its once vast colonial empire outside of North Africa.El Desastre (the Disaster), as the war became known in Spain, gave added impetus to theGeneration of '98. Although the period around the turn of the century was one of increasing prosperity, the 20th century brought little social peace. Spain played a minor part in thescramble for Africa. It remained neutralduring World War I. The heavy losses suffered by the colonial troops in conflicts in northern Morocco against Riffians forces brought discredit to the government and undermined the monarchy.
Political corruption and repression weakened the democratic system of the constitutional monarchy of a two-parties system.[61] The July 1909Tragic Week events and repression exemplified the social instability of the time.
TheLa Canadiense strike in 1919 led to the first law limiting the working day to eight hours.[62]
After a period of Crown-supported dictatorship from 1923 to 1931, the first elections since 1923, largely understood as a plebiscite on Monarchy, took place: the12 April 1931 municipal elections. These gave a resounding victory to the Republican-Socialist candidacies in large cities and provincial capitals, with a majority of monarchist councilors in rural areas. The king left the country and the proclamation of the Republic on 14 April ensued, with the formation of a provisional government.
Aconstitution for the country was passed in October 1931 following theJune 1931 Constituent general election, and a series of cabinets presided byManuel Azaña supported by republican parties and thePSOE followed. In the election held in 1933 the right triumphed and in 1936, the left. During theSecond Republic there was a great political and social upheaval, marked by a sharp radicalisation of the left and the right. Instances of political violence during this period included the burning of churches, the1932 failed coup d'état led by José Sanjurjo, theRevolution of 1934 and numerous attacks against rival political leaders. On the other hand, it is also during the Second Republic when important reforms to modernise the country were initiated: a democratic constitution, agrarian reform, restructuring of the army, political decentralisation andwomen's right to vote.
The Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936: on 17 and 18 July, part of the militarycarried out a coup d'état that triumphed in only part of the country. The situation led to a civil war, in which the territory was divided into two zones: oneunder the authority of the Republican government, that counted on outside support from theSoviet Union andMexico (and fromInternational Brigades), and the other controlled by the putschists (theNationalist or rebel faction), most critically supported byNazi Germany andFascist Italy. The Republic was not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy ofnon-intervention. GeneralFrancisco Franco was sworn in as the supreme leader of the rebels on 1 October 1936. An uneasy relationship between the Republican government and the grassroots anarchists who had initiated a partialsocial revolution also ensued.
The civil war was viciously fought and there weremany atrocities committed by all sides. Thewar claimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens from the country.[63][64] On 1 April 1939, five months before the beginning ofWorld War II, the rebel side led by Franco emerged victorious, imposing a dictatorship over the whole country. Thousands were imprisoned after the civil war inFrancoist concentration camps.
The regime remained nominally "neutral" for much of the Second World War, although it wassympathetic tothe Axis and provided the NaziWehrmacht withSpanish volunteers in the Eastern Front. The only legal party under Franco's dictatorship was theFalange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS (FET y de las JONS), formed in 1937 upon the merging of the FascistFalange Española de las JONS and the Carlist traditionalists and to which the rest of right-wing groups supporting the rebels also added. The name of "Movimiento Nacional", sometimes understood as a wider structure than the FET y de las JONS proper, largely imposed over the later's name in official documents along the 1950s.
After the war Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during theCold War period, when it became strategically important for the US to establish a military presence on the Iberian Peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. US Cold War strategic priorities included the dissemination of American educational ideas to foster modernization and expansion.[65] In the 1960s, Spain registered anunprecedented rate of economic growth which was propelled byindustrialisation, a mass internal migration from rural areas toMadrid,Barcelona and theBasque Country and the creation of a mass tourism industry. Franco's rule was also characterised byauthoritarianism,promotion of a unitary national identity,National Catholicism, anddiscriminatory language policies.
Juan Carlos I before the Cortes Españolas, during his proclamation as King on 22 November 1975
In 1962, a group of politicians involved in the opposition to Franco's regime inside the country and in exile met in the congress of theEuropean Movement in Munich, where they made a resolution in favour of democracy.[66][67][68]
In the Basque Country, moderateBasque nationalism coexisted with aradical nationalist movement led by the armed organisationETA until the latter's dissolution in May 2018.[69] The group was formed in 1959 during Franco's rule but had continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy.
On 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in an attempt to imposea military-backed government. King Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender.[70]
On 1 January 2002, Spain fully adopted theeuro, and Spain experienced strong economic growth, well above the EU average during the early 2000s. However, well-publicised concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of the boom warned that extraordinary property prices and a high foreign trade deficit were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse.[71]
In 2002, thePrestige oil spill occurred with big ecological consequences along Spain's Atlantic coastline. In 2003José María Aznar supported US presidentGeorge W. Bush in theIraq War, and a strong movement against war rose in Spanish society. In March 2004 a localIslamist terrorist group inspired byAl-Qaeda carried out the largest terrorist attack in Western European history when they killed 191 people and wounded more than 1,800 others bybombing commuter trains in Madrid.[72] Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque terrorist groupETA, evidence of Islamist involvement soon emerged. Because of the proximity of the2004 Spanish general election, the issue of responsibility quickly became a political controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE exchanging accusations over the handling of the incident.[73] The PSOE won the election, led byJosé Luis Rodríguez Zapatero.[74]
In the early 2000s, the proportion ofSpain's foreign born population increased rapidly during its economic boom but then declined due to the financial crisis.[75] In 2005, the Spanish government legalisedsame sex marriage, becoming the third country worldwide to do so.[76] Decentralisation was supported with much resistance of Constitutional Court and conservative opposition, so did gender politics like quotas or the law against gender violence. Government talks with ETA happened, and the group announced its permanent cease of violence in 2010.[77]
Demonstration against the crisis and high youth unemployment in Madrid, 15 October 2011
In October 2017 aCatalan independence referendum was held and theCatalan parliament voted to unilaterally declareindependence from Spain to form a Catalan Republic[82][83] on the day theSpanish Senate was discussing approving direct rule over Catalonia as called for by the Spanish Prime Minister.[84][85] On the same day the Senate granted the power to impose direct rule and Rajoy dissolved the Catalan parliament and called a new election.[86] No country recognised Catalonia as a separate state.[87]
Salvador Illa, former minister of Health during COVID-19 pandemic in the first coalition Government in Spain, elected first non independentist Catalan regional president in over a decade, with Barcelona mayorJaume Collboni.
In June 2018, theCongress of Deputies passed amotion of no-confidence against Rajoy and replaced him with the PSOE leaderPedro Sánchez.[88] In 2019, the first ever coalicion government in Spain was formed, between PSOE and Unidas Podemos. Between 2018 and 2024, Spain faced aninstitutional crisis surrounding the mandate of theGeneral Council of the Judiciary (CGPJ), until finally the mandate got renovated.[89] In January 2020, theCOVID-19 virus was confirmed to havespread to Spain, causing life expectancy to drop by more than a year.[90] The European Commission economic recovery packageNext Generation EU were created to support the EU member states to recover from the COVID-19 pandemic, and will be in use in the period 2021–2026. In March 2021, Spain became the sixth nation in the world to makeactive euthanasia legal.[91] Following thegeneral election on 23 July 2023, prime minister Pedro Sánchez once again formed a coalition government, this time withSumar (successors ofUnidas Podemos).[92]In 2024, the first non-independentist Catalan regional president in over a decade,Salvador Illa, was elected, normalising the constitutional and institutional relations between the national and the regional administrations. According to latest polls,[93] only 17.3% of Catalans feel themselves as "only Catalan". 46% of Catalans would answer "as Spanish as Catalan", while 21.8% "more Catalan than Spanish".[93] Accordind to a 2024 poll of University of Barcelona, over 50% of Catalans would vote against independence, while less than 40% would vote in favour.[94]
Mainland Spain is a rathermountainous landmass, dominated by highplateaus and mountain chains. After the Pyrenees, the main mountain ranges are theCordillera Cantábrica (Cantabrian Range),Sistema Ibérico (Iberian System),Sistema Central (Central System),Montes de Toledo,Sierra Morena and theSistema Bético (Baetic System) whose highest peak, the 3,478-metre-high (11,411-foot)Mulhacén, located inSierra Nevada, is the highest elevation in the Iberian Peninsula. The highest point in Spain is theTeide, a 3,718-metre (12,198 ft) activevolcano in the Canary Islands. TheMeseta Central (often translated as 'Inner Plateau') is a vast plateau in the heart of peninsular Spain split in two by the Sistema Central.
TheCsa zone is associated with areas with hot summers. It is predominant in the Southern Mediterranean (except southeastern) and Southern Atlantic coast and inland throughoutAndalusia, Extremadura and much of the centre of the country. Some areas of Csa, mainly those inland, such as some areas ofCastilla-La-Mancha,Extremadura, Madrid and some parts of Andalusia, have cool winters with some continental influences, while the regions with a Mediterranean climate close to the sea have mild winters.
TheCsb zone has warm rather than hot summers, and extends to additional cool-winter areas not typically associated with a Mediterranean climate, such as much of central and northern-central of Spain (e.g. westernCastile–León, northeastern Castilla-La Mancha and northern Madrid) and into much rainier areas (notablyGalicia).
Thesemi-arid climate (BSk,BSh) is predominant in the southeastern quarter of the country, but is also widespread in other areas of Spain. It covers most of theRegion of Murcia, southern and central-easternValencia, eastern Andalusia, various areas of Castilla-La-Mancha, Madrid and some areas of Extremadura. Further to the north, it is predominant in the upper and mid reaches of theEbro valley, which crosses southernNavarre, centralAragon and westernCatalonia. It is also found in a small area in northern Andalusia and in a small area in central Castilla-León. Precipitation is limited with dry season extending beyond the summer and average temperature depends on altitude and latitude.
Theoceanic climate (Cfb) is located in the northern quarter of the country, especially in the Atlantic region (Basque Country,Cantabria,Asturias, and partly Galicia and Castile–León). It is also found in northern Navarre, in most highlands areas along theIberian System and in thePyrenean valleys, where a humid subtropical variant (Cfa) also occurs. Winter and summer temperatures are influenced by the ocean, and have no seasonal drought.
Thefauna presents a wide diversity that is due in large part to the geographical position of the Iberian peninsula between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and between Africa andEurasia, and the great diversity of habitats andbiotopes, the result of a considerable variety of climates and well differentiated regions.
The vegetation of Spain is varied due to several factors including the diversity of the terrain, the climate andlatitude. Spain includes differentphytogeographic regions, each with its own floral characteristics resulting largely from the interaction of climate, topography, soil type and fire, andbiotic factors. The country had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.23/10, ranking it 130th globally out of 172 countries.[103]
Within the European territory, Spain has the largest number of plant species (7,600 vascular plants) of all European countries.[104]
In Spain there are 17.804 billion trees and an average of 284 million more grow each year.[105]
The constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. In June 1976, Spain's new KingJuan Carlos dismissedCarlos Arias Navarro and appointed the reformerAdolfo Suárez as Prime Minister.[106][107] The resultinggeneral election in 1977 convened theConstituent Cortes (the Spanish Parliament, in its capacity as a constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and approving the constitution of 1978.[108] After a national referendum on 6 December 1978, 88% of voters approved of the new constitution. As a result, Spain successfully transitioned from aone-party personalist dictatorship to amultipartyparliamentary democracy composed of 17autonomous communities and twoautonomous cities. These regions enjoy varying degrees of autonomy thanks to the Spanish Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the indivisible unity of the Spanish nation.
Governance
The Crown
The independence of the Crown, its political neutrality and its wish to embrace and reconcile the different ideological standpoints enable it to contribute to the stability of our political system, facilitating a balance with the other constitutional and territorial bodies, promoting the orderly functioning of the State and providing a channel for cohesion among Spaniards.[109]
In these respects, the Crown constitutes a fifthmoderating branch that does not makepublic policy or administerpublic services, functions which rightfully rest with Spain's duly elected legislatures and governments at both the national and regional level. Instead, the Crown personifies the democratic Spanish state, sanctions legitimate authority, ensures the legality of means, and guarantees the execution of the public will.[125][126] Put another way, the monarch fosters national unity at home, represents Spaniards abroad (especially with regard tonations of their historical community), facilitates the orderly operation and continuity of theSpanish government, defendsrepresentative democracy, and upholds therule of law.[111] In other words, the Crown is the guardian of the Spanish constitution and of the rights and freedoms of all Spaniards.[127][m] This stabilising role is in keeping with the monarch'ssolemn oath uponaccession "...to faithfully carry out [my] duties, to obey the Constitution and the laws and ensure that they are obeyed, and to respect the rights of citizens and the Self-governing Communities."[129]
A number of constitutional powers, duties, rights, responsibilities, and functions are assigned to the monarch in his or her capacity as head of state. However, the Crown enjoysinviolability in the performance of theseprerogatives andcannot be prosecuted in the very courts which administer justice in its name.[130] For this reason, every official act done by the monarch requires thecountersignature of theprime minister or, when appropriate, thepresident of the Congress of Deputies to have the force of law. The countersigning procedure orrefrendo in turn transfers political and legal liability for the royal prerogative to the attesting parties.[131] This provision does not apply to theRoyal Household, over which the monarch enjoys absolute control and supervision, or to membership in theOrder of the Golden Fleece, which is adynastic order in the personal gift of theHouse of Bourbon-Anjou.[132]
The royal prerogatives may be classified by whether they are ministerial functions or reserve powers. Ministerial functions are those royal prerogatives that are, pursuant to theconvention established byJuan Carlos I, performed by the monarch after soliciting theadvice of the Government, the Congress of Deputies, the Senate, the General Council of the Judiciary, or the Constitutional Tribunal, as the case may be. On the other hand, thereserve powers of the Crown are those royal prerogatives which are exercised in the monarch's personal discretion.[127] Most of the Crown's royal prerogatives are ministerial in practice, meaning the monarch has no discretion in their execution and primarily performs them as a matter of state ceremonial. Nevertheless, when performing said ministerial functions, the monarch has the right to be consulted before acting on advice, the right to encourage a particular course of policy or action, and the right to warn the responsible constitutional authorities against the same. Those ministerial functions are as follows:
Sanction andpromulgate bills duly passed by the Cortes Generales, making themlaws. The Spanish Constitution mandates the monarch grant royal assent to each bill within fifteen days of its passage; he or she does not have a right toveto legislation.[133][134]
Summon the Cortes Generales intosession following a general election,dissolve the same upon the expiration of its four-year term, andproclaim theelection of the next Cortes. These functions are performed in accordance with the strictures of the Spanish Constitution.[135][136][137][138][139]
Appoint the president of theSupreme Court on the advice of the General Council of the Judiciary.[141]
Appoint the president of theConstitutional Tribunal from among its members, on the advice of the full bench, for a term of three years.[142]
Appoint theFiscal General, who leads theProsecution Ministry, on the advice of the Government. Before tendering advice, the Government is required to consult the General Council of the Judiciary.[143]
The aforesaid limitations do not apply to the exercise of the Crown's reserve powers, which may be invoked by the monarch whennecessary to maintain the continuity and stability of state institutions.[152] For example, the monarch has the right to be kept informed on affairs of state through regularaudiences with the Government. For this purpose, the monarch may preside at any time over meetings of the Council of Ministers, but only when requested by the prime minister.[153] Moreover, the monarch may prematurely dissolve the Congress of Deputies, the Senate, or both houses of the Cortes in their entirety before the expiration of their four-year term and, in consequence thereof, concurrently call forsnap elections. The monarch exercises this prerogative on the request of the prime minister, after the matter has been discussed by the Council of Ministers. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse the request.[154] The monarch may also order national referendums on the request of the prime minister, but only with the prior authorisation of the Cortes Generales. Again, the monarch may choose to accept or refuse the prime minister's request.[155]
The Crown's reserve powers further extend intoconstitutional interpretation and theadministration of justice. The monarch appoints the 20 members of theGeneral Council of the Judiciary. Of these counselors, twelve are nominated by the supreme, appellate and trial courts, four are nominated by the Congress of Deputies by a majority of three-fifths of its members, and four are nominated by the Senate with the same majority. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse any nomination.[156] In a similar vein, the monarch appoints the twelve magistrates of theConstitutional Tribunal. Of these magistrates, four magistrates are nominated by the Congress of Deputies by a majority of three-fifths of its members, four magistrates are nominated by the Senate with the same majority, two magistrates are nominated by the Government, and two magistrates are nominated by the General Council of the Judiciary. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse any nomination.[157]
However, it is the monarch's reserve powers concerningGovernment formation that are perhaps the most frequently exercised. The monarch nominates a candidate forprime minister and, as the case may be, appoints or removes him or her from office based on the prime minister's ability to maintain theconfidence of theCongress of Deputies.[158] If the Congress of Deputies fails to give its confidence to a new Government within two months, and is thus incapable of governing as a result of parliamentary gridlock, the monarch may dissolve the Cortes Generales and call for fresh elections. The monarch makes use of these reserve powers in his own deliberative judgment after consulting the president of the Congress of Deputies.[159]
The prime minister, ashead of government, enjoys primacy over the other ministers by virtue of his or her ability toadvise the monarch as to their appointment and dismissal.[169] Moreover, the prime minister has plenary authority conferred by the Spanish Constitution to direct and coordinate the Government's policies and administrative actions.[170] The Spanish monarchnominates the prime minister after consulting representatives from the different parliamentary groups and in turn formally appoints him or her to office upon a vote of investiture in the Congress of Deputies.[171]
Spain's autonomous communities are the first level administrative divisions of the country. They were created after the current constitution came into effect (in 1978) in recognition of the right to self-government of the "nationalities and regions of Spain".[172] The autonomous communities were to comprise adjacent provinces with common historical, cultural, and economic traits. This territorial organisation, based ondevolution, is known in Spain as the "State of Autonomies" (Estado de las Autonomías). The basic institutional law of each autonomous community is theStatute of Autonomy. The Statutes of Autonomy establish the name of the community according to its historical and contemporary identity, the limits of its territories, the name and organisation of the institutions of government and the rights they enjoy according to the constitution.[173] This ongoing process of devolution means that, while officially aunitary state, Spain is nevertheless one of the mostdecentralised countries in Europe, along withfederations likeBelgium,Germany, andSwitzerland.[174]
Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country, which identified themselves asnationalities, were granted self-government through a rapid process. Andalusia also identified itself as a nationality in its first Statute of Autonomy, even though it followed the longer process stipulated in the constitution for the rest of the country. Progressively, other communities in revisions to their Statutes of Autonomy have also taken that denomination in accordance with their historical and modern identities, such as the Valencian Community,[175] the Canary Islands,[176] the Balearic Islands,[177] and Aragon.[178]
The autonomous communities have wide legislative and executive autonomy, with their own elected parliaments and governments as well as their own dedicatedpublic administrations. The distribution of powers may be different for every community, as laid out in their Statutes of Autonomy, since devolution was intended to be asymmetrical. For instance, only two communities—the Basque Country and Navarre—have full fiscal autonomy based on ancientforal provisions. Nevertheless, each autonomous community is responsible for healthcare and education, among other public services.[179] Beyond these competencies, thenationalities—Andalusia, theBasque Country,Catalonia, andGalicia—were also devolved more powers than the rest of the communities, among them the ability of the regional president to dissolve the parliament and call for elections at any time. In addition, the Basque Country, theCanary Islands, Catalonia, andNavarre each have autonomous police corps of their own:Ertzaintza,Policía Canaria,Mossos d'Esquadra, andPolicía Foral respectively. Other communities have more limited forces or none at all, like thePolicía Autónoma Andaluza inAndalusia orBESCAM in Madrid.[180]
Autonomous communities are divided intoprovinces, which served as their territorial building blocks. In turn, provinces are divided intomunicipalities. The existence of both the provinces and the municipalities is guaranteed and protected by the constitution, not necessarily by the Statutes of Autonomy themselves. Municipalities are granted autonomy to manage their internal affairs, and provinces are the territorial divisions designed to carry out the activities of the State.[181]
The current provincial division structure is based—with minor changes—on the1833 territorial division byJavier de Burgos, and in all, the Spanish territory is divided into 50 provinces. The communities of Asturias, Cantabria, La Rioja, the Balearic Islands, Madrid, Murcia and Navarre are the only communities that comprise a single province, which is coextensive with the community itself. In these cases, the administrative institutions of the province are replaced by the governmental institutions of the community.
As a member ofNATO since 1982, Spain has established itself as a participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on many international issues beyond western Europe, Spain prefers to coordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political co-operation mechanisms.[vague]
Spain has maintained its special relations withHispanic America and thePhilippines. Its policy emphasises the concept of anIbero-American community, essentially the renewal of the concept of"Hispanidad" or"Hispanismo", as it is often referred to in English, which has sought to link the Iberian Peninsula with Hispanic America through language, commerce, history and culture. It is fundamentally "based on shared values and the recovery of democracy."[182]
The armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas Españolas). Theircommander-in-chief is the King of Spain,Felipe VI.[190] The next military authorities in line are the Prime Minister and the Minister of Defence. The fourth military authority of the State is theChief of the Defence Staff (JEMAD).[191] TheDefence Staff (Estado Mayor de la Defensa) assists the JEMAD as auxiliary body.
The Spanish armed forces are a professional force with a strength in 2017 of 121,900 active personnel and 4,770 reserve personnel. The country also has the 77,000 strongCivil Guard which comes under the control of the Ministry of defense in times of a national emergency. The Spanish defense budget is 5.71 billion euros (US$7.2 billion) a 1% increase for 2015. The increase comes because of security concerns in the country.[192] Military conscription was suppressed in 2001.[193]
According to the 2024Global Peace Index, Spain is the 23rd most peaceful country in the world.[194]
TheSpanish Constitution of 1978 "protect all Spaniards and all the peoples of Spain in the exercise of human rights, their cultures and traditions, languages and institutions".[195]
According toAmnesty International (AI), government investigations of alleged police abuses are often lengthy and punishments were light.[196] Violence against women was a problem, which the Government took steps to address.[197][198]
Spain provides one of the highest degrees of liberty in the world for itsLGBT community. Among the countries studied byPew Research in 2013, Spain is rated first in acceptance of homosexuality, with 88% of those surveyed saying that homosexuality should be accepted.[199]
The Cortes Generales approved theGender Equality Act in 2007 aimed at furtheringequality between genders in Spanish political and economic life.[200] According toInter-Parliamentary Union data as of 1 September 2018, 137 of the 350 members of the Congress were women (39.1%), while in the Senate, there were 101 women out of 266 (39.9%), placing Spain 16th on their list of countries ranked by proportion of women in thelower (orsingle) House.[201] TheGender Empowerment Measure of Spain in the United NationsHuman Development Report is 0.794, 12th in the world.[202]
Spain beganindustrializing in the late 18th century, albeit more gradually and unevenly than other European countries; industry was limited mostly to Catalonia (primarily textile manufacturing) and theBasque Country (iron and steel production).[205] Overall economic growth was slower than in most major western European countries, and Spain remained relatively underdeveloped by the early 20th century.[205] TheSpanish Civil War, followed by failedautarkic and interventionist policies that were worsened byinternational isolation, left the economy on the brink of collapse by the late 1950s.Technocratic reforms were enacted to avert the crisis, laying the groundwork for theSpanish economic miracle, a period of rapid growth from 1960 until 1974, during which Spain's economy grew an average of 6.6 percent per year, exceeding every country except Japan.[205]
Since itstransition to democracy in the late 1970s, Spain has generally sought toliberalise its economy and deepen regional and internationalintegration. It joined theEuropean Economic Community—now the European Union—in 1986 and implemented policies and reforms that allowed for its participation in the inaugural launch of the euro in 1999. Spain's largest trade and investment partners are within the EU and eurozone, including its four largest export markets; EU membership also coincided with a tripling offoreign direct investment from 1990 to 2000. Spain was among the countries hit hardest by the2007–2008 global financial crisis and subsequenteuro-zone debt crisis, enduring aprotracted recession that persisted through 2014.
Spain has long struggled with highunemployment, which has never fallen below 8 percent since the 1980s; it stood at 10.61 percent in January 2025.[206]Youth unemployment is particularly severe by both global and regional standards; at 24.90 percent (as of January 2025), it is the highest among EU members and well above the EU average of 14.6 percent.[206] Perennial weak points of Spain's economy include a largeinformal economy;[207][208][209] an education system that performs poorly compared to most developed countries;[210] and low rates of private sector investment.[204]
Theautomotive industry is one of the largest employers in the country and a major contributor to economic growth, accounting for one-tenth ofgross domestic product and 18 percent of total exports (including vehicles and auto-parts). In 2023, Spain produced 2.45 million automobiles—of which over 2.1 million were exported abroad—ranking eighth in the world and second in Europe (afterGermany) by total number.[215] In total, 89 percent of vehicles and 60% of auto-parts manufactured in Spain were exported worldwide in 2023; the total external trade surplus of vehicles alone reached €18.8bn in 2023. Overall, the automotive industry supports nearly 2 million jobs, or 9 percent of the labor force.[215]
Benidorm, one of Europe's largest coastal tourist destinations
In 2024, Spain was the second most visited country in the world only behindFrance, recording 94 million tourists.[216][217] The international tourist expenditure in 2024 was around 126 billion euros.[218] The headquarters of theWorld Tourism Organisation are located in Madrid.
Spain's geographic location, popular coastlines, diverse landscapes, historical legacy, vibrant culture, and excellent infrastructure have made the country's international tourist industry among the largest in the world. Tourism in Spain is a major contributor to national economic life, with foreign and domestic tourism contributing to 12.3% of Spain'sGDP in 2023.[219]
In 2010 Spain became thesolar power world leader when it overtook the United States with a massive power station plant calledLa Florida, nearAlvarado, Badajoz.[220][221] Spain is also Europe's main producer of wind energy.[222][223] In 2010 its wind turbines generated 16.4% of all electrical energy produced in Spain.[224][225][226] On 9 November 2010, wind energy reached a historic peak covering 53% of mainland electricity demand[227] and generating an amount of energy that is equivalent to that of 14nuclear reactors.[228] Other renewable energies used in Spain arehydroelectric,biomass andmarine.[229]
Non-renewable energy sources used in Spain arenuclear (8 operative reactors),gas,coal, andoil. Fossil fuels together generated 58% of Spain's electricity in 2009, just below the OECD mean of 61%. Nuclear power generated another 19%, and wind and hydro about 12% each.[230]
TheConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) is the leading public agency dedicated to scientific research in the country. It ranked as the 5th top governmental scientific institution worldwide (and 32nd overall) in the 2018 SCImago Institutions Rankings.[231] Spain was ranked 28th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[232]
Higher education institutions perform about a 60% of the basic research in the country.[233] Likewise, the contribution of the private sector to R&D expenditures is much lower than in other EU and OECD countries.[234]
As of February 2025[update], the Spanish high-speed rail network is the longest HSR network in Europe with 3,973 km (2,469 mi)[237] and thesecond longest in the world, after China's. It is linkingMálaga,Seville, Madrid,Barcelona,Valencia andValladolid, with the trains operated at commercial speeds up to 330 km/h (210 mph).[238] On average, the Spanish high-speed train is the fastest one in the world, followed by the Japanesebullet train and the FrenchTGV.[239] Regarding punctuality, it is second in the world (98.5% on-time arrival) after the Japanese Shinkansen (99%).[240]
In 2025, Spain had a population of 49,077,984 people as recorded by Spain'sInstituto Nacional de Estadística.[241] Spain's population density, at 97/km2 (251.2/sq mi), is lower than that of most Western European countries and its distribution across the country is very unequal. With the exception of the region surrounding the capital, Madrid, the most populated areas lie around the coast. The population of Spain has risen2+1⁄2 times since 1900, when it stood at 18.6 million, principally due to the spectacular demographic boom in the 1960s and early 1970s.[242]
In 2023, the averagetotal fertility rate (TFR) across Spain was 1.12 children born per woman,[243] one of the lowest in the world, below the replacement rate of 2.1, it remains considerably below the high of 5.11 children born per woman in 1865.[244] Spain subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 43.1 years.[245]
NativeSpaniards make up 80.89% of the total population of Spain.[246] After thebirth rate plunged in the 1980s and Spain's population growth rate dropped, the population again trended upward initially upon the return of many Spaniards who had emigrated to other European countries during the 1970s, and more recently, fuelled by large numbers of immigrants who make up more than 19% of the population today. These immigrants originate mainly fromLatin America (39%),North Africa (16%),Eastern Europe (15%), andSub-Saharan Africa (4%).[247]
In 2008, Spain granted citizenship to 84,170 persons, mostly to people from Ecuador, Colombia and Morocco.[248] Spain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies, especially Latin America and North Africa. Smaller numbers of immigrants from severalSub-Saharan countries have recently been settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of whom are of Middle Eastern,South Asian and Chinese origin. The single largest group of immigrants are European; represented by large numbers of Romanians, Britons,Germans, French and others.[249]
Distribution of the foreign population in Spain in 2005 by percentage
According to the official Spanish statistics (INE) there were 6.8 million foreign residents in Spain in 2025 (13.9%)[250] while all citizens born outside of Spain were 9.3 million in 2025, 19.11% of the total population.[251]
According to residence permit data for 2011, more than 860,000 were Romanian, about 770,000 wereMoroccan, approximately 390,000 were British, and 360,000 wereEcuadorian.[252] Other sizeable foreign communities are Colombian, Bolivian, German, Italian,Bulgarian, and Chinese. There are more than 200,000 migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa living in Spain, principallySenegaleses andNigerians.[253] Since 2000, Spain has experienced highpopulation growth as a result of immigration flows, despite a birth rate that is only half the replacement level. This sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those arriving illegally by sea, has caused noticeable social tension.[254]
Within the EU, Spain had the 2nd highest immigration rate in percentage terms afterCyprus, but by a great margin, the highest in absolute numbers, up to 2008.[255] The number of immigrants in Spain had grown up from 500,000 people in 1996 to 5.2 million in 2008 out of a total population of 46 million.[256] In 2005 alone, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people.[257] There are a number of reasons for the high level of immigration, including Spain's cultural ties with Latin America, its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the strength of the agricultural and construction sectors, which demand more low cost labour than can be offered by the national workforce.
Another statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of EU origin typically retiring to Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain was Europe's largest absorber of migrants from 2002 to 2007, with its immigrant population more than doubling as 2.5 million people arrived.[258] In 2008, prior to the onset of the economic crisis, theFinancial Times reported that Spain was the most favoured destination for Western Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU.[259]
In 2008, the government instituted a "Plan of Voluntary Return" which encouraged unemployed immigrants from outside the EU to return to their home countries and receive several incentives, including the right to keep their unemployment benefits and transfer whatever they contributed to the Spanish Social Security.[260] The programme had little effect.[261] Although the programme failed to, the sharp and prolonged economic crisis from 2010 to 2011, resulted in tens of thousands of immigrants leaving the country due to lack of jobs. In 2011 alone, more than half a million people left Spain.[262] For the first time in decades the net migration rate was expected to be negative, and nine out of 10 emigrants were foreigners.[262]
Spain is a multilingual state.[263]Spanish—featured in the 1978Spanish Constitution ascastellano ('Castilian')—has effectively been the official language of the entire country since 1931.[264] As allowed in the third article of the Constitution, the other 'Spanish languages' can also become official in their respectiveautonomous communities. The territoriality created by the form of co-officiality codified in the 1978 Constitution creates an asymmetry, in which Spanish speakers' rights apply to the entire territory whereas vis-à-vis the rest of co-official languages, their speakers' rights only apply in their territories.[265]
According to an official survey complementary to the 2021 census carried out byNational Statistics Institute, Spanish is considered as first language by 81.53%, while Catalan/Valencian by 10.50%, Galician by 3.77% and Basque by 1.42% of the Spanish population. The most spoken foreign language wasArabic with 2.17% of the population considering it as their first language, followed byEnglish with 1.58%,Romanian with 1.44%,French with 0.94%, Portuguese with 0.54%,Chinese with 0.48%,German with 0.44% andItalian with 0.41%.[268] Such diversity of foreign languages is mainly due to international migration.[269]
State education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of six to sixteen. The current education system is regulated by the 2006 educational law, LOE (Ley Orgánica de Educación), or Fundamental Law for the Education.[270] In 2014, the LOE was partially modified by the newer and controversial LOMCE law (Ley Orgánica para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa), or Fundamental Law for the Improvement of the Education System, commonly calledLey Wert (Wert Law).[271] Since 1970 to 2014, Spain has had seven different educational laws (LGE, LOECE, LODE, LOGSE, LOPEG, LOE and LOMCE).[272]
The levels of education are preschool education, primary education,[273] secondary education[274] and post-16 education.[275] In regards to the professional development education or the vocational education, there are three levels besides the university degrees: theFormación Profesional Básica (basic vocational education); theCiclo Formativo de Grado Medio orCFGM (medium level vocation education) which can be studied after studying the secondary education, and theCiclo Formativo de Grado Superior orCFGS (higher level vocational education), which can be studied after studying the post-16 education level.[276]
TheProgramme for International Student Assessment coordinated by theOECD currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of Spanish 15-year-olds as significantly below the OECD average of 493 in reading literacy, mathematics, and science.[277][278]
The health care system of Spain (Spanish National Health System) is considered one of the best in the world, in 7th position in the ranking elaborated by theWorld Health Organisation.[279] The health care is public, universal and free for any legal citizen of Spain.[280] The total health spending is 9.4% of the GDP, slightly above the average of 9.3% of theOECD.
Roman Catholicism, which has a long history in Spain, remains the dominant religion. Although it no longer has official status by law, in all public schools in Spain students have to choose either a religion or ethics class. Catholicism is the religion most commonly taught, although the teaching of Islam,[282] Judaism,[283] and evangelical Christianity[284] is also recognised in law. According to a 2020 study by the Spanish Centre for Sociological Research, about 61% of Spaniards self-identify asCatholics, 3% other faiths, and about 35% identify withno religion.[285] Most Spaniards do not participate regularly in religious services.[286] Recent polls and surveys suggest that around 30% of the Spanish population is irreligious.[286][287][288]
The Spanish constitution enshrinessecularism in governance, as well as freedom of religion or belief for all, saying that no religion should have a "state character", while allowing for the state to "cooperate" with religious groups.
A study made by theUnion of Islamic Communities of Spain demonstrated that there were more than 2,100,000 inhabitants of Muslim background living in Spain as of 2019[update], accounting for 4–5% of the total population of Spain. The vast majority was composed of immigrants and descendants originating from theMaghreb (especiallyMorocco) and other African countries. More than 879,000 (42%) of them had Spanish nationality.[291]
Judaism was practically non-existent in Spain from the 1492 expulsion until the 19th century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country. Currently there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, or 0.14% of the total population.
Spain is aWestern country and one of the majorLatin countries of Europe, and has been noted for its international cultural influence.[292] Spanish culture is marked by strong historic ties to theCatholic Church, which played a pivotal role in the country's formation and subsequent identity.[293] Spanish art, architecture, cuisine, and music have been shaped by successive waves of foreign invaders, as well as by the country's Mediterranean climate and geography. The centuries-long colonial era globalised Spanish language and culture, with Spain also absorbing the cultural and commercial products of its diverse empire.
Some early examples of vernacular Romance-based literature include short snippets ofMozarabic Romance (such as refrains) sprinkled inArabic andHebrew texts.[296] Other examples of early Iberian Romance include theGlosas Emilianenses written in Latin, Basque and Romance.[297]
Early Medieval literature in Christian Iberia was written inLatin, which remained as the standard literary language up until the mid-13th century, whereas Ibero-Romance vernaculars and Basque were spoken.[298] A decisive development ensued in the 13th century inToledo, where Arabic scholarship was translated to the local vernacular,Castilian. In the scope of lyric poetry Castilian co-existed alongsideGalician-Portuguese across the Crown of Castile up until the 16th century.[299] The Romance variety preferred in Eastern Iberia for lyrical poetry,Occitan, became increasinglyCatalanised in the 14th and 15th centuries.[300] Major literary works from the Middle Ages include theCantar de Mio Cid,Tirant lo Blanch,The Book of Good Love andCoplas por la muerte de su padre. Genres such asMester de Juglaría andMester de Clerecía were cultivated.
Steps ofSpanish Romantic literature (initially a rebellion against French classicism) have been traced back to the last quarter of the 18th century, even if the movement had its heyday between 1835 and 1850, waning thereafter.[302] In a broader definition encompassing the period from 1868 or 1874 to 1936, the so-called Silver Age of Spanish Culture ensued.[303][304]
The waning of Romantic literature was followed by the development ofSpanish Realism, which offered depictions of contemporary life and society 'as they were', rather than romanticised or stylised presentations.[citation needed] The major realist writer wasBenito Pérez Galdós.[305] The second half of the 19th century also saw the resurgence of the literary use of local languages other than Spanish under cultural movements inspired by Romanticism such as the CatalanRenaixença or the GalicianRexurdimento.[306] Rarely used before in a written medium, the true fostering of the literary use of the Basque language had to wait until the 1960s, even if some interest towards the language had developed in the late 19th century.[307] 20th-century authors were classified in loose literary generations such as theGeneration of '98, theGeneration of '27,Generation of '36 and theGeneration of '50.Premio Planeta de Novela andMiguel de Cervantes Prize are the two main awards in Spanish literature.
The construct pertaining a distinctive Spanish philosophical thought has been variously approached by academia, either by diachronically tracing its development throughout the centuries from the Roman conquest of Hispania on (with early representatives such asSeneca,Trajan,Lucan, orMartial); by pinpointing its origins to the late 19th century (associated to theGeneration of 98); or simply by outright denying its existence.[308] The crux around the existence of a Spanish philosophy pitted the likes ofMarcelino Menéndez y Pelayo (chief architect of the myth around it)[309] against Antonio Pérez.[310] Foreign imports such asKrausism proved to be extremely influential in Spain in the 19th and early 20th centuries.[311]
Artists from Spain have been highly influential in the development of various European andAmericanartistic movements. Due to historical, geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great number of influences. The Mediterranean heritage with Greco-Roman and some Moorish influences in Spain, especially inAndalusia, is still evident today. European influences include Italy, Germany and France, especially during the Renaissance,Spanish Baroque andNeoclassical periods. There are many other autochthonous styles such as thePre-Romanesque art and architecture,Herrerian architecture or theIsabelline Gothic.[citation needed]
The Plateresque style extended from beginnings of the 16th century until the last third of the century and its stylistic influence pervaded the works of all great Spanish artists of the time.Alonso Berruguete (Valladolid School) is called the "Prince of Spanish sculpture". His main works were the upper stalls of the choir of theCathedral of Toledo, the tomb of Cardinal Tavera in the same Cathedral, and the altarpiece of the Visitation in the church of Santa Úrsula in the same locality. Other notable sculptors wereBartolomé Ordóñez,Diego de Siloé,Juan de Juni andDamián Forment.[citation needed]
There were two Schools: theSeville School, to whichJuan Martínez Montañés belonged, whose most celebrated works are the Crucifix in the Cathedral of Seville, another in Vergara, and a Saint John; and theGranada School, to whichAlonso Cano belonged, to whom an Immaculate Conception and a Virgin of Rosary, are attributed.[citation needed]
After the first projection of a cinematographer in Spain by 1896, cinema developed in the following years, with Barcelona becoming the largest production hub in the country (as well as a major European hub) on the eve of the World War I.[313] The conflict offered the Spanish industry ofsilent films an opportunity for further growth.[314] Local studios forsound films were created in 1932.[315] The government imposition of dubbing of foreign films in 1941 accustomed Spanish audiences to watchingdubbed films.[316]
Distinct exploitation genres that flourished in the second half of the 20th century include theFantaterror, thecinequinqui and the so-calleddestape [es] films.[318]
As of 2021, the festivals ofSan Sebastián andMálaga are ranked among the top cultural initiatives in the country.[319]
Earth andgypsum are very common materials of the traditionalvernacular architecture in Spain (particularly in the East of the country, where most of the deposits of gypsum are located).[320]Due to its historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn from a host of influences. Fine examples ofIslamicate architecture, belonging to theWestern Islamic tradition, were built in the Middle Ages in places such asCórdoba,Seville, orGranada. Similarly to the Maghreb,stucco decoration inAl-Andalus became an architectural stylemark in the high Middle Ages.[321]
Simultaneously, the Christian kingdoms also developed their own styles; developing apre-Romanesque style when for a while isolated from contemporary mainstream European architectural influences during the earlier Middle Ages, they later integrated theRomanesque andGothic streams. There was then an extraordinary flourishing of the Gothic style that resulted in numerous instances being built throughout the entire territory. The so-calledMudéjar style came to designate works by Muslims, Christians and Jews in lands conquered from Muslims.[322]
Spanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous withflamenco, a West Andalusian musical genre, which is not widespread outside that region.[323] Various regional styles offolk music abound. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular.
Thousands of music fans also travel to Spain each year for internationally recognised summer music festivalsSónar which features pop and techno acts, andBenicàssim which tends to feature alternative rock and dance acts.[324] TheVitoria-Gasteiz jazz festival is one of the main ones in its genre.
The most popular traditionalmusical instrument, the guitar, originated in Spain.[325] Typical of the north are the traditional bag pipers orgaiteros, mainly in Asturias and Galicia.
Spanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography, culture and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from the waters that surround the country, and reflects the country's deepMediterranean roots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences has led to a unique cuisine. In particular, three main divisions are easily identified:
Mediterranean Spain – coastal regions, from Catalonia to Andalusia – heavy use of seafood, such aspescaíto frito (fried fish); cold soups likegazpacho; and many rice-based dishes likepaella from Valencia[326] andarròs negre (black rice) from Catalonia.[327]
Inner Spain – Castile – hot, thick soups such as the bread and garlic-basedCastilian soup, along with substantial stews such ascocido madrileño. Food is traditionally preserved by salting, such asSpanish ham, or immersed inolive oil, such asManchego cheese.
Public holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious (Roman Catholic), national and local observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum of 14 public holidays per year; up to nine of these are chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen locally.[330]Spain's National Day (Fiesta Nacional de España) is celebrated on 12 October.[331][332]
There are many festivals and festivities in Spain. One of the most famous isSan Fermín, inPamplona. While its most famous event is theencierro, or therunning of the bulls. It has become one of the most internationally renowned fiestas in Spain, with over 1,000,000 people attending every year.[citation needed]
^abIn Spain, someother languages enjoy co-official status in certain regions (in accordance with the latter'sStatutes of Autonomy) or have some degree of recognition. In each of these, Spain's conventional long name for international affairs in Spanish laws and the most used (Spanish:Reino de España, pronounced:Spanish pronunciation:[ˈrejnoð(e)esˈpaɲa]) is as follows:
^The Spanish Constitution does not contain any one official name for Spain. Instead, the termsEspaña (Spain),Estado español (Spanish State) andNación española (Spanish Nation) are used throughout the document, sometimes interchangeably. In 1984, the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs established that the denominationsEspaña (Spain) andReino de España (Kingdom of Spain) are equally valid to designate Spain in international treaties. The latter term is widely used by the government in national and international affairs of all kinds, including foreign treaties as well as national official documents, and is therefore recognised as the conventional name by many international organisations.[333]
^Former kingJuan Carlos I's intervention and foiling of the1981 Spanish coup attempt is but one example of the Crown exercising its influence as the moderating branch to defend democracy and uphold the rule of law.[128]
^Barómetro de Febrero 2025: Estudio Cis Nº 3496 (in Spanish).Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas. 2025.Archived from the original on 21 February 2025. Retrieved21 February 2025., 4,042 respondents. The question was¿Cómo se define Ud. en materia religiosa: católico/a practicante, católico/a no practicante, creyente de otra religión, agnóstico/a, indiferente o no creyente, o ateo/a?.
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