Theenvironmental movement (sometimes referred to as theecology movement) is asocial movement that aims to protect the natural world from harmful environmental practices in order to createsustainable living.[1] In its recognition of humanity as a participant in (not an enemy of)ecosystems, the movement is centered onecology,health, as well ashuman rights.
The environmental movement is an international movement, represented by a range of environmental organizations, from enterprises tograssroots and varies from country to country. Due to its large membership, varying and strong beliefs, and occasionally speculative nature, the environmental movement is not always united in its goals. At its broadest, the movement includes private citizens, professionals,religious devotees, politicians, scientists,nonprofit organizations, and individual advocates like former Wisconsin SenatorGaylord Nelson andRachel Carson in the 20th century.
Since the 1970s, public awareness,environmental sciences,ecology, and technology have advanced to include modern focus points likeozone depletion,climate change,acid rain,mutation breeding,genetically modified crops andgenetically modified livestock.
Theclimate movement can be regarded as a sub-type of the environmental movement.
The environmental movement contains a number of subcommunities, that have developed with different approaches and philosophies in different parts of the world. Notably, the early environmental movement experienced a deep tension between the philosophies ofconservation and broaderenvironmental protection.[2] In recent decades the rise to prominence ofenvironmental justice, indigenous rights and key environmental crises like theclimate crises, has led to the development of other environmentalist identities.
The environmental movement is broad in scope and can include any topic related to the environment, conservation, and biology, as well as the preservation of landscapes, flora, and fauna for a variety of purposes and uses. Examples include:
Genetically modified plants andanimals are said by some environmentalists to be inherently bad because they are unnatural. Others point out the possible benefits of GM crops such aswater conservation through corn modified to be less "thirsty" and decreased pesticide use through insect-resistant crops. They also point out that somegenetically modified livestock have accelerated growth which means there are shorter production cycles which again results in a more efficient use of feed.[5]
Besides genetically modified crops and livestock,synthetic biology is also on the rise and environmentalists argue that these also contain risks, if these organisms were ever to end up in nature. This, as unlike with genetically modified organisms, synthetic biology even usesbase pairs that do not exist in nature.[6]
Theanti-nuclear movement opposes the use of variousnuclear technologies. The initial anti-nuclear objective wasnuclear disarmament and later the focus began to shift to other issues, mainly opposition to the use ofnuclear power. There have been many large anti-nucleardemonstrations andprotests. Thepro-nuclear movement consists of people, including former opponents of nuclear energy, who calculate that the threat to humanity from climate change is far worse than any risk associated with nuclear energy.
By the mid-1970s anti-nuclear activism had moved beyond local protests and politics to gain a wider appeal and influence. Although it lacked a single coordinating organization the anti-nuclear movement's efforts gained a great deal of attention, especially in theUnited Kingdom and United States.[7] In the aftermath of theThree Mile Island accident in 1979, many mass demonstrations took place. The largest one was held in New York City in September 1979 and involved 200,000 people.[8][9][10]
Tree sitting is a form of activism in which the protester sits in a tree in an attempt to stop the removal of a tree or to impede the demolition of an area with the longest and most famous tree-sitter beingJulia Butterfly Hill, who spent 738 days in a California Redwood, saving a three-acre tract of forest.[11] Also notable is theYellow Finch tree sit, which was a 932-day blockade of theMountain Valley Pipeline from 2018 to 2021.[12][13]
Sit-ins can be used to encourage social change, such as the Greensboro sit-ins, a series of protests in 1960 to stop racial segregation, but can also be used in ecoactivism, as in theDakota Access Pipeline Protest.[14]
Notable environmental protests and campaigns include:
The origins of the environmental movement in Europe and North America lay inSmoke abatement programs in response to increasing levels ofsmokepollution in theatmosphere during theIndustrial Revolution. The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth incoal consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level ofair pollution in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrialchemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste.[17]
Conservative critics of the movement characterize it as radical and misguided. Especially critics of theUnited States Endangered Species Act, which has come under scrutiny lately,[when?] and the Clean Air Act, which they said conflict with private property rights, corporate profits and the nation's overall economic growth. Critics alsochallenge the scientific evidence for global warming. They argue that the environmental movement has diverted attention from more pressing issues.[18] Western environmental activists have also been criticized forperformative activism,eco-colonialism, and enactingwhite savior tropes, especially celebrities who promote conservation in developing countries.[19][20]
When residents living near proposed developments organize opposition they are sometimes called"NIMBYS", short for "not in my back yard".[21]
Mithun Roy Chowdhury, President, Save Nature & Wildlife (SNW),Bangladesh, insisted that the people of Bangladesh raise their voice againstTipaimukh Dam, being constructed by theGovernment of India. He said the Tipaimukh Dam project will be another "death trap for Bangladesh like theFarakka Barrage," which would lead to anenvironmental disaster for 50 million people in theMeghna River basin. He said that this project will startdesertification in Bangladesh.[22][23][24][25]
Bangladesh was ranked the most polluted country in the world due to defective automobiles, particularly diesel-powered vehicles, and hazardous gases from industry. The air is a hazard to Bangladesh's human health, ecology, and economic progress.[26]
China's environmental movement is becoming stronger, with the establishment of environmental non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that are advocating policy changes and placing environmental causes on the national agenda. These activists have the tendency to spontaneously join with local citizens, specialists, as well as other actors to work on specific environmental concerns. Grassroots mobilization and protests have also become more common, frequently focusing on localized concerns such as pollution, forest depletion, or biodiversity conservation. Such campaigns may not necessarily attract extensive national media coverage, but collectively they promote environmental awareness and promote sustainability in China.[27] Environmental protests in China are increasingly expanding their scope of concerns, calling for broader participation "in the name of the public."[28]
The Chinese have realized the ability of riots and protests to have success and had led to an increase in disputes in China by 30% since 2005 to more than 50,000 events. Protests cover topics such as environmental issues,land loss, income, and political issues. They have also grown in size from about 10 people or fewer in the mid-1990s to 52 people per incident in 2004. China has more relaxed environmental laws than other countries in Asia, so many polluting factories have relocated to China, causingpollution in China.
Water pollution,water scarcity,soil pollution,soil degradation, anddesertification are issues currently in discussion in China. Thegroundwater table of theNorth China Plain is dropping by 1.5 m (5 ft) per year. This groundwater table occurs in the region of China that produces 40% of the country's grain.[29][30]The Center for Legal Assistance to Pollution Victims works to confront legal issues associated with environmental justice by hearing court cases that expose the narratives of victims of environmental pollution.[31][page needed] As China continues domestic economic reforms and integration into global markets, there emerge new linkages between China's domesticenvironmental degradation and global ecological crisis.[32]
Comparing the experience of China, South Korea, Japan and Taiwan reveals that the impact of environmental activism is heavily modified by domestic political context, particularly the level of integration of mass-based protests and policy advocacy NGOs. Hinted by the history of neighboring Japan and South Korea, the possible convergence of NGOs and anti-pollution protests will have significant implications for Chinese environmental politics in the coming years.[33]
Environmental and public health is an ongoing struggle within India. The first seed of an environmental movement in India was the foundation in 1964 ofDasholi Gram Swarajya Sangh, a labour cooperative started byChandi Prasad Bhatt. It was inaugurated bySucheta Kriplani and founded on land donated by Shyma Devi. This initiative was eventually followed up with theChipko movement starting in 1974.[34][35]
The most severe single event underpinning the movement was theBhopal gas leakage on 3 December 1984.[36] 40 tons ofmethyl isocyanate was released, immediately killing 2,259 people and ultimately affecting 700,000 citizens.
India has a national campaign againstCoca-Cola andPepsi Cola plants due to their practices of drawing groundwater and contaminating fields with sludge. The movement is characterized by local struggles against intensiveaquaculture farms. The most influential part of the environmental movement in India is the anti-dam movement. Dam creation has been thought of as a way for India to catch up with the West by connecting to thepower grid with giant dams, coal or oil-powered plants, or nuclear plants. Jhola Aandolan a massmovement is conducting as fighting againstpolyethylene carry bags uses and promoting cloth/jute/paper carry bags to protect the environment andnature. Activists in the Indian environmental movement consider global warming, sea levels rising, and glaciers retreating decreasing the amount of water flowing into streams to be the biggest challenges for them to face in the early twenty-first century.[29]Eco Revolution movement has been started byEco Needs Foundation[37] in 2008 from Aurangabad Maharashtra that seeks the participation of children, youth, researchers, spiritual and political leaders to organise awareness programmes and conferences. Child activists againstair pollution in India andgreenhouse gas emissions by India includeLicypriya Kangujam. From the mid to late 2010s a coalition of urban and Indigenous communities came together to protectAarey, a forest located in the suburbs ofMumbai.[38] Farming and indigenous communities have also opposed pollution and clearing caused by mining in states such asGoa,Odisha, andChhattisgarh.[39]
Environmental activism in theArab world, includingMiddle East and North Africa (MENA), mobilizes around issues such asindustrial pollution, and insistence that the government providesirrigation.[40]TheLeague of Arab States has one specialized sub-committee, of 12 standing specialized subcommittees in the Foreign Affairs Ministerial Committees, which deals with Environmental Issues. Countries in the League of Arab States have demonstrated an interest in environmental issues, on paper some environmental activists have doubts about the level of commitment to environmental issues; being a part of the world community may have obliged these countries to portray concern for the environment. The initial level of environmental awareness may be the creation of a ministry of the environment. The year of establishment of a ministry is also indicative of the level of engagement. Saudi Arabia was the first to establish environmental law in 1992 followed by Egypt in 1994. Somalia is the only country without environmental law. In 2010 the Environmental Performance Index listed Algeria as the top Arab country at 42 of 163; Morocco was at 52 and Syria at 56. TheEnvironmental Performance Index measures the ability of a country to actively manage and protect its environment and the health of its citizens. A weighted index is created by giving 50% weight for environmental health objective (health) and 50% for ecosystem vitality (ecosystem); values range from 0–100. No Arab countries were in the top quartile, and 7 countries were in the lowest quartile.[41]
South Korea and Taiwan experienced similar growth in industrialization from 1965 to 1990 with few environmental controls.[42] South Korea'sHan River andNakdong River were so polluted by unchecked dumping of industrial waste that they were close to being classified as biologically dead. Taiwan's formula for balanced growth was to prevent industrial concentration and encourage manufacturers to set up in the countryside. This led to 20% of the farmland being polluted by industrial waste and 30% of the rice grown on the island was contaminated with heavy metals. Both countries had spontaneous environmental movements drawing participants from different classes. Their demands were linked with issues of employment, occupational health, and agricultural crisis. They were also quite militant; the people learned that protesting can bring results. The polluting factories were forced to make immediate improvements to the conditions or pay compensation to victims. Some were even forced to shut down or move locations. The people were able to force the government to come out with new restrictive rules on toxins, industrial waste, and air pollution. All of these new regulations caused the migration of those polluting industries from Taiwan and South Korea to China and other countries in Southeast Asia with more relaxed environmental laws.
The modern conservation movement was manifested in the forests ofIndia, with the practical application of scientific conservation principles. Theconservation ethic that began to evolve included three core principles: human activity damaged theenvironment, there was acivic duty to maintain the environment for future generations, and scientific, empirically based methods should be applied to ensure this duty was carried out.James Ranald Martin was prominent in promoting this ideology, publishing manymedico-topographical reports that demonstrated the scale of damage wrought through large-scale deforestation and desiccation, and lobbying extensively for theinstitutionalization of forest conservation activities inBritish India through the establishment ofForest Departments.[43]
TheMadras Board of Revenue started local conservation efforts in 1842, headed byAlexander Gibson, a professionalbotanist who systematically adopted a forest conservation programme based on scientific principles. This was the first case of state management of forests in the world.[44] Eventually, the government underGovernor-GeneralLord Dalhousie introduced the first permanent and large-scale forest conservation programme in the world in 1855, a model that soon spread toother colonies, as well as theUnited States. In 1860, the Department banned the use ofshifting cultivation.[45]Hugh Cleghorn's 1861 manual,The forests and gardens of South India, became the definitive work on the subject and was widely used by forest assistants in the subcontinent.[46][47]
Dietrich Brandis joined the British service in 1856 as superintendent of the teak forests of Pegu division in easternBurma. During that time Burma'steak forests were controlled by militantKaren tribals. He introduced the "taungya" system,[48] in which Karen villagers provided labour for clearing, planting, and weeding teak plantations. Also, he formulated new forest legislation and helped establish research and training institutions. Brandis as well as founded the Imperial Forestry School at Dehradun.[49][50]
In 2022, a court in South Africa has confirmed the constitutional right of the country's citizens to an environment that is not harmful to their health, which includes the right to clean air. The case is referred to "Deadly Air" case. The area includes one of South Africa's largest cities, Ekurhuleni, and a large portion of the Mpumalanga province.[51]
After theInternational Environmental Conference in Stockholm in 1972 Latin American officials returned with a high hope of growth and protection of the fairly untouched natural resources. Governments spent millions of dollars, and created departments and pollution standards. However, the outcomes have not always been what officials had initially hoped. Activists blame this on growing urban populations and industrial growth. Many Latin American countries have had a large inflow of immigrants that are living in substandard housing. Enforcement of the pollution standards is lax and penalties are minimal; in Venezuela, the largest penalty for violating an environmental law is 50,000bolivar fine ($3,400) and three days in jail. In the 1970s or 1980s, many Latin American countries were transitioning from military dictatorships to democratic governments.[52]
In 1992, Brazil came under scrutiny with theUnited Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro. Brazil has a history of little environmental awareness. It has the highestbiodiversity in the world and also the highest amount ofhabitat destruction. One-third of the world's forests lie in Brazil. It is home to the largest river,The Amazon, and the largest rainforest, theAmazon rainforest. People have raised funds to create state parks and increase the consciousness of people who have destroyed forests and polluted waterways. From 1973 to the 1990s, and then in the 2000s, indigenous communities and rubber tappers also carried out blockades that protected much rainforest.[53] It is home to several organizations that have fronted the environmental movement. The Blue Wave Foundation was created in 1989 and has partnered with advertising companies to promote national education campaigns to keep Brazil's beaches clean. Funatura was created in 1986 and is a wildlife sanctuary program.Pro-Natura International is a private environmental organization created in 1986.[54]
From the late 2000s onwards community resistance saw the formerly pro-mining southeastern state of Minas Gerais cancel a number of projects that threatened to destroy forests. In northern Brazil’s Pará state the Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais Sem Terra (Landless Workers Movement) and others campaigned and took part in occupations and blockades against the environmentally harmful Carajás iron ore mine.[55]
The movement in theUnited States began in the late 19th century, out of concerns for protecting the natural resources of the West, with individuals such asJohn Muir andHenry David Thoreau making key philosophical contributions. Thoreau was interested in peoples' relationship with nature and studied this by living close to nature in a simple life. He published his experiences in the 1854 bookWalden, which argues that people should become intimately close with nature. Muir came to believe in nature's inherent right, especially after spending time hiking inYosemite Valley and studying both the ecology and geology. He successfully lobbied congress to formYosemite National Park and went on to set up theSierra Club in 1892.[56] The conservationist principles as well as the belief in an inherent right of nature became the bedrock of modern environmentalism.
Beginning in the conservation movement at the beginning of the 20th century, the contemporary environmental movement's roots can be traced back toRachel Carson's 1962 bookSilent Spring,Murray Bookchin's 1962 bookOur Synthetic Environment, andPaul R. Ehrlich's 1968The Population Bomb. American environmentalists have campaigned againstnuclear weapons andnuclear power in the 1960s and 1970s,acid rain in the 1980s,ozone depletion anddeforestation in the 1990s, and most recentlyclimate change andglobal warming.[53] Individuals such asHope Sawyer Buyukmihci andDorothy Richardson have attempted to change attitudes towards individual species of animal experiencinghabitat loss andover-exploitation.
The United States passed many pieces of environmental legislation in the 1970s, such as theClean Water Act,[57] theClean Air Act, theEndangered Species Act, and theNational Environmental Policy Act. These remain as the foundations for current environmental standards.
In the 1990s, theanti-environmental 'Wise Use' movement emerged in the United States.[58]
TheEU's environmental policy was formally founded by aEuropean Council declaration and the first five-year environment programme was adopted.[59] Thepolluter pays principle was well established inenvironmental economics before it was included in theSingle European Act.[60] Following the1973 oil crisis theSocial Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) passed groundbreaking laws onenergy efficiency.[61]
During the 1930s the Nazis had elements that were supportive of animal rights, zoos and wildlife,[62] and took several measures to ensure their protection.[63] In 1933 the government created a stringent animal-protection law and in 1934,Das Reichsjagdgesetz (The Reich Hunting Law) was enacted which limited hunting.[64][65]Several Nazis were environmentalists (notablyRudolf Hess), and species protection andanimal welfare were significant issues in the regime.[63] In 1935, the regime enacted the "Reich Nature Protection Act" (Reichsnaturschutzgesetz). The concept of theDauerwald (best translated as the "perpetual forest") which included concepts such asforest management and protection was promoted and efforts were also made to curbair pollution.[66]
During theSpanish Revolution in 1936, anarchist-controlled territories undertook several environmental reforms, which were possibly the largest in the world at the time.Daniel Guerin notes thatanarchist territories would diversify crops, extendirrigation, initiatereforestation, start tree nurseries and help to establishnaturist communities.[67] Once there was a link discovered between air pollution and tuberculosis, theCNT shut down several metal factories.[68]
The late 19th century saw the formation of the first wildlife conservation societies. The zoologistAlfred Newton published a series of investigations into theDesirability of establishing a 'Close-time' for the preservation of indigenous animals between 1872 and 1903. His advocacy for legislation to protect animals from hunting during the mating season led to the formation of the Plumage League (later theRoyal Society for the Protection of Birds) in 1889.[69] The society acted as aprotest group campaigning against the use ofgreat crested grebe andkittiwake skins and feathers infur clothing.[70][better source needed] The Society campaigned for greater protection for the indigenous birds of theisland.[71] The Society attracted growing support from the suburban middle-classes,[72] and influenced the passage of theSea Birds Preservation Act in 1869 as the first nature protection law in the world.[73][74] It also attracted support from many other influential figures, such as theornithologist ProfessorAlfred Newton. By 1900, public support for the organisation had grown, and it had over 25,000 members. Thegarden city movement incorporated many environmental concerns into itsurban planning manifesto; theSocialist League andThe Clarion movement also began to advocate measures ofnature conservation.[75]
For most of the century from 1850 to 1950, however, the primary environmental cause was the mitigation of air pollution. TheCoal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs. It was founded by artist SirWilliam Blake Richmond, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were earlier pieces of legislation, thePublic Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke.
Systematic and general efforts on behalf of the environment only began in the late 19th century; it grew out of the amenity movement in Britain in the 1870s, which was a reaction toindustrialization, the growth of cities, and worsening air andwater pollution. Starting with the formation of theCommons Preservation Society in 1865, the movement championed rural preservation against the encroachments of industrialisation.Robert Hunter, solicitor for the society, worked withHardwicke Rawnsley,Octavia Hill, andJohn Ruskin to lead a successful campaign to prevent the construction of railways to carry slate from the quarries, which would have ruined the unspoilt valleys ofNewlands andEnnerdale. This success led to the formation of the Lake District Defence Society (later to become The Friends of the Lake District).[76][77]
In 1893 Hill, Hunter and Rawnsley agreed to set up a national body to coordinate environmental conservation efforts across the country; the "National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty" was formally inaugurated in 1894.[78] The organisation obtained secure footing through the 1907 National Trust Bill, which gave the trust the status of a statutory corporation.[79] and the bill was passed in August 1907.[80]
Early interest in the environment was a feature of theRomantic movement in the early 19th century. The poetWilliam Wordsworth had travelled extensively in England'sLake District and wrote that it is a "sort of national property in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy".[81][82]
An early "Back-to-Nature" movement, which anticipated the romantic ideal of modern environmentalism, was advocated by intellectuals such asJohn Ruskin,William Morris,George Bernard Shaw andEdward Carpenter, who were all againstconsumerism,pollution and other activities that were harmful to the natural world.[83] The movement was a reaction to the urban conditions of the industrial towns, where sanitation was awful, pollution levels intolerable and housing terribly cramped.[84] Idealists championed the rural life as a mythicalutopia and advocated a return to it. John Ruskin argued that people should return to a "small piece of English ground, beautiful, peaceful, and fruitful. We will have no steam engines upon it ... we will have plenty of flowers and vegetables ... we will have some music and poetry; the children will learn to dance to it and sing it."[85] Ruskin moved out of London and together with his friends started to think about thepost-industrial society. The predictions Ruskin made for the post-coal utopia coincided withforecasting published by the economistWilliam Stanley Jevons.[86] Practical ventures in the establishment of small cooperative farms were even attempted and old rural traditions, without the "taint of manufacture or the canker of artificiality", were enthusiastically revived, including theMorris dance and themaypole.[87]
The Coal Smoke Abatement Society (nowEnvironmental Protection UK) was formed in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs. It was founded by artist SirWilliam Blake Richmond, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were earlier pieces of legislation, thePublic Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke. It also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts of black smoke. This law's provisions were extended in 1926 with the Smoke Abatement Act to include other emissions, such as soot, ash, and gritty particles, and to empower local authorities to impose their own regulations.
It was only under the impetus of theGreat Smog of 1952 in London, which almost brought the city to a standstill and may have caused upward of 6,000 deaths, that theClean Air Act 1956 was passed and airborne pollution in the city was first tackled. Financial incentives were offered to householders to replace open coal fires with alternatives (such as installing gas fires) or those who preferred, to burn coke instead (a byproduct of town gas production) which produces minimal smoke. 'Smoke control areas' were introduced in some towns and cities where only smokeless fuels could be burnt and power stations were relocated away from cities. The act formed an important impetus to modern environmentalism and caused a rethinking of the dangers of environmental degradation to people's quality of life.[88]
Beginning as aconservation movement, theenvironmental movement in Australia was the first in the world to become a political movement.Australia is home toUnited Tasmania Group, the world's firstgreen party.[89][90]
The environmental movement is represented by a wide range of groups sometimes callednon-governmental organizations (NGOs). These exist on local, national, and international scales. Environmental NGOs vary widely in political views and in the amount they seek to influenceenvironmental policy in Australia and elsewhere. The environmental movement today consists of both large national groups and also many smaller local groups with local concerns.[91] There are also 5,000Landcare groups in the six states and two mainland territories. Otherenvironmental issues within the scope of the movement include forest protection,climate change andopposition to nuclear activities.[92][93]
In Australia, the movement has seen a growth in popularity through prominent Australianenvironmentalists such asBob Brown,Peter Garrett,Steve Irwin,Tim Flannery, andDavid Fleay.
nevada test site protest demonstration.
sort of national property in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy.
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