Enosis (Greek:Ένωσις,IPA:[ˈenosis], "union") is anirredentist ideology held by variousGreek communities living outsideGreece that calls for them and the regions that they inhabit to be incorporated into the Greek state. The idea is related to theMegali Idea, a concept of a Greek state that dominated Greek politics following the creation of modern Greece in 1830. The Megali Idea called for the establishment of a larger Greek state including the lands outside Greece that remained under foreign rule following theGreek War of Independence in the 1820s, but which nevertheless still had large Greek populations.
The most widely known example ofenosis is the movement withinGreek Cypriots for a union ofCyprus with Greece. The idea ofenosis inBritish-ruled Cyprus became associated with the campaign for Cypriotself-determination, especially among the island's Greek Cypriot majority. However, manyTurkish Cypriots opposedenosis withouttaksim, the partitioning of the island between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots. In 1960, the Republic of Cyprus was born, resulting in neitherenosis nortaksim.
Around then,Cypriot intercommunal violence occurred in response to the different objectives, and the continuing desire forenosis resulted in the1974 Cypriot coup d'état in an attempt to achieve it. It, however, promptedTurkey into launching theTurkish invasion of Cyprus, which led to partition and the currentCyprus dispute.
The boundaries of theKingdom of Greece were originally established at theLondon Conference of 1832[1] following theGreek War of Independence.[2] TheDuke of Wellington wanted the new state to be limited to thePeloponnese[3] because Britain wished to preserve as much of theterritorial integrity of theOttoman Empire as possible. The initial Greek state included little more than the Peloponnese,Attica and theCyclades. Its population amounted to less than one million, with three times as manyethnic Greeks living outside it, mainly in Ottoman territory.[4] Many of them aspired to be incorporated in the kingdom, and movements among them calling forenosis (union) with Greece, often achieved popular support. With the decline of the Ottoman Empire, Greece expanded with a number of territorial gains.
TheIonian Islands had been placed under British protection as a result of theTreaty of Paris in 1815,[5] but once Greek independence had been established after 1830, the islanders began to resent foreign colonial rule and to press for enosis. Britain transferred the islands to Greece in 1864.
Thessaly remained under Ottoman control after the formation of the Kingdom of Greece. Although parts of the territory had participated in the initial uprisings in the Greek War of Independence in 1821, the revolts had been swiftly crushed. During theRusso-Turkish War of 1877–78, Greece remained neutral as a result of assurances by thegreat powers that her territorial claims on the Ottoman Empire would be considered after the war. In 1881, Greece and the Ottoman Empire signed theConvention of Constantinople, which created a new Greco-Turkish border that Incorporated most of Thessaly into Greece.
Crete rebelled against Ottoman rule during theCretan Revolt of 1866-69 and used the motto "Crete, Enosis, Freedom or Death". TheCretan State was established after the intervention of the Great Powers, and Cretan union with Greece occurredde facto in 1908 andde jure in 1913 by theTreaty of Bucharest.
An unsuccessful Greek uprising inMacedonia against Ottoman rule had taken place during the Greek War of Independence. There was a failed rebellion in 1854 that aimed to unite Macedonia with Greece.[6] TheTreaty of San Stefano in 1878 after the Russo-Turkish War awarded nearly all of Macedonia to Bulgaria. That resulted in the1878 Greek Macedonian rebellion and the reversal of the award at theTreaty of Berlin (1878), leaving the territory in Ottoman hands. Then followed the protractedMacedonian Struggle between Greeks and Bulgarians in the region, the resultant guerrilla war not coming to an end until the revolution ofYoung Turks in July 1908. Bulgarian and Greek rivalries over Macedonia became part of theBalkan Wars of 1912–13, with the 1913 Treaty of Bucharest awarding Greece large parts of Macedonia, includingThessaloniki. TheTreaty of London (1913) awarded southernEpirus to Greece, the Epirus region having rebelled against Ottoman rule during theEpirus Revolt of 1854 and theEpirus Revolt of 1878.
In 1821, several parts ofWestern Thrace rebelled against Ottoman rule and participated in the Greek War of Independence. During the Balkan Wars, Western Thrace was occupied by Bulgarian troops, and in 1913, Bulgaria gained Western Thrace under the terms of the Treaty of Bucharest. AfterWorld War I, Western Thrace was withdrawn from Bulgaria under the terms of the 1919Treaty of Neuilly and temporarily managed by the Allies before being it was given to Greece at theSan Remo Conference in 1920.
After World War I, Greece began theOccupation of Smyrna and of surrounding areas of WesternAnatolia in 1919 at the invitation of the victoriousAllies, particularly British Prime MinisterDavid Lloyd George. The occupation was given official status in the 1920Treaty of Sèvres, with Greece being awarded most ofEastern Thrace and a mandate to governSmyrna and its hinterland.[7] Smyrna was declared a protectorate in 1922, but the attemptedenosis failed since the newTurkish Republic prevailed in the resultingGreco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, when most Anatolian Christians who had not already fled during the war were forced to relocate to Greece in the 1923population exchange between Greece and Turkey.
Most of theDodecanese Islands were slated to become part of the new Greek state in theLondon Protocol of 1828, but when Greek independence was recognised in theLondon Protocol of 1830, the islands were left outside the new Kingdom of Greece. They were occupied by Italy in 1912 and held until World War II, when they became a British military protectorate. The islands were formally united with Greece by the 1947Treaty of Peace with Italy, despite objections from Turkey, which also desired them.
TheAutonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was proclaimed in 1914 by ethnic Greeks inNorthern Epirus, the area having been incorporated intoAlbania after theBalkan Wars. Greece held the area between 1914 and 1916 and unsuccessfully tried to annex it in March 1916,[8] but in 1917 Greek forces were driven from the area by Italy, who took over most of Albania.[9] TheParis Peace Conference of 1919 awarded the area to Greece, but Greece's defeat in theGreco-Turkish War made the area revert to Albanian control.[10]Italy's invasion of Greece from the territory of Albania in 1940 and the successful Greek counterattack let the Greek army briefly hold Northern Epirus for a six-month period until theGerman invasion of Greece in 1941. Tensions between Greece and Albania remained high during theCold War, but relations began to improve in the 1980s with Greece's abandonment of any territorial claims over Northern Epirus and the lifting of the official state of war between both countries.[8]
In modern times, apart from Cyprus, the call forenosis is most often heard among part of the Greek community living in southern Albania.[11]
In 1828, the first President ofGreece,Ioannis Kapodistrias, called for the union of Cyprus with Greece, and numerous minor uprisings took place.[12] Cyprus was at that time part of the Ottoman Empire. At the 1878Congress of Berlin the administration of Cyprus was transferred to Britain,[13] and uponGarnet Wolseley's arrival as the first high-commissioner in July the Archbishop ofKition requested that Britain transfer the administration of Cyprus to Greece.[14] Britain annexed Cyprus in 1914.
The death of Limassol–Paphos MPChristodoulos Sozos during the course of theBattle of Bizani during theFirst Balkan War, left a lasting mark on the Enosis movement and was one of its most important events before the1931 Cyprus revolt. Greek schools and courts suspended their activities, and a court inNicosia also raised a flag in honour of Sozos, thus breaking the law since Britain had maintained a neutral stance in the conflict.Mnemosyna were held in dozens of villages across Cyprus, as well as in Cypriot communities in Athens, Egypt and Sudan. Greek Cypriot newspapers were swept with nationalist fervor comparing Sozos withPavlos Melas. A photo of Sozos was placed in theHellenic Parliament.[15][16]
Britain offered to cede the island to Greece in 1915 in return for Greece joining theallies inWorld War I, but the offer was refused.[17] Turkey relinquished all claims to Cyprus in 1923 with theTreaty of Lausanne, and the island became a BritishCrown colony in 1925.[18] In 1929, a Greek Cypriot delegation was sent to London to requestenosis but received a negative response.[19] After anti-British riots in 1931, the desire for self-government within theBritish Commonwealth developed, but the movement forenosis became dominant.[20]
Greek Cypriots made up around 80% of the island's population between 1882 and 1960,[21] and the enosis movement resulted from the nationalist awareness that was developing among them, coupled with the growth of theanticolonial movement throughout theBritish Empire afterWorld War II. In the minds of Greek Cypriots, the enosis movement was the only natural outcome of the liberation of Cyprus fromOttoman rule and later British rule.[citation needed] A string of British proposals for local autonomy under continued Britishsuzerainty were roundly rejected.[citation needed]
In the 1950s, the influence of the Greek OrthodoxChurch of Cyprus over the education system resulted in the ideas ofGreek nationalism andenosis being promoted in Greek Cypriot schools. School textbooks portrayed Turks as the enemies of Greeks, and students took an oath of allegiance to the Greek flag. The British authorities attempted to counter that by publishing an intercommunal periodical for students and by suspending theCyprus Scouts Association for its Greek nationalist tendencies.[22]
In December 1949, the Cypriot Orthodox Church asked the British colonial government to put the enosis question to areferendum on the basis of the right of the Cypriots' forself-determination. Even though the British had been an ally of Greece duringWorld War II and had recently supported the Greek government during theGreek Civil War, the British colonial government refused.
In 1950, ArchbishopSpyridon of Athens led the call for Cypriotenosis in Greece.[23] The Church was a strong supporter ofenosis and organised a plebiscite, theCypriot enosis referendum, which was held on 15 and 22 January 1950; only Greek Cypriots could vote. Open books were placed in churches for those over 18 to sign and to indicate whether they supported or opposedenosis. The majority in support ofenosis was 95.7%.[24][25] Later, there were accusations that the local Greek Orthodox church had told its congregation that not to vote forenosis would have meant excommunication from the church.[26][27]
After the referendum, a Greek Cypriot deputation visited Greece, Britain and theUnited Nations to make its case, and Turkish Cypriots and student and youth organisations in Turkey protested the plebiscite. In the event, neither Britain nor the UN was persuaded to supportenosis.[28] In 1951, a report was produced by the British government's Smaller Territories Enquiry into the future of theBritish Empire's smaller territories, including Cyprus. It concluded that Cyprus should never be independent from Britain. That view was strengthened by Britain's withdrawal of itsSuez Canal base in 1954 and the transfer of itsMiddle East Headquarters to Cyprus.[17] In 1954, Greece made its first formal request to the UN for the implementation of "the principle of equal rights and of self-determination of the peoples", in the case of the Cypriot population. Until 1958, four other requests to the United Nations were made unsuccessfully by the Greek government.[29]
In 1955, the resistance organisationEOKA started a campaign against British rule to bring aboutenosis with Greece. The campaign lasted until 1959,[28] when many argued thatenosis was politically unfeasible because of the strong minority of Turkish Cypriots and their increasing assertiveness. Instead, the creation of an independent state with elaborate powersharing arrangements among both communities was agreed upon in 1960, and the fragileRepublic of Cyprus was born.
The idea of union with Greece was not immediately abandoned, however. During the campaign for the1968 presidential elections, Cypriot PresidentMakarios III said thatenosis was "desirable" but that independence was "possible".[citation needed]
In the early 1970s, the idea ofenosis remained attractive to many Greek Cypriots, and Greek Cypriot students condemned Makarios's support for an independent unitary state. In 1971 the pro-enosis paramilitary groupEOKA B was formed, and Makarios declared his opposition to the use of violence to achieveenosis. EOKA B began a series of attacks against the Makarios government, and in 1974, theCypriot National Guard organised a military coup against Makarios that was supported by the Greek government under the control of theGreek military junta of 1967–1974.Rauf Denktaş, the Turkish Cypriot leader, called for military intervention by the United Kingdom and Turkey to preventenosis. Turkey acted unilaterally, and theTurkish invasion of Cyprus began. Turkey has since occupiedNorthern Cyprus.[20]
The events of 1974 caused the geographic partition of Cyprus and massivepopulation transfers. The subsequent events seriously undermined theenosis movement. The departure of Turkish Cypriots from the areas that remained under effective control of Cyprus resulted in a homogeneous Greek Cypriot society in the southern two thirds of the island. The remaining third of the island is majority Turkish Cypriot, and increasing numbers of Turkish nationals have been migrating there from Turkey.
In 2017 theCypriot Parliament passed a law to allow for the celebration of the 1950Cypriot enosis referendum in Greek Cypriot government schools.[30]
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The history ofNorthern Epirus in the period 1913–1921 was marked by the desire of the local Greek element for union with theKingdom of Greece, as well as the redemptive desire of Greek politics to annex this region, which was eventually awarded to the Albanian Principality.
During the First Balkan War, Northern Epirus, which hosted a significant minority of Orthodox speakers who spoke either Greek or Albanian, was, at the same time as South Epirus, under the control of the Greek army, which had previously repelled Ottoman forces. Greece wanted to annex these territories. However, Italy and Austria-Hungary opposed this, while the Treaty of Florence of 1913 granted Northern Epirus to Albania's newly formed Principality, the majority of whose inhabitants were Muslims. Thus, the Greek army withdrew from the area, but the Christians of Epirus, denying the international situation, decided, with the secret support of the Greek state, to create an autonomous regime, based in Argyrokastro (Albanian:Gjirokastër).
Given Albania's political instability, the autonomy of Northern Epirus was finally ratified by the Great Powers with the signing of theProtocol of Corfu on May 17, 1914. The agreement did recognize the special status of the Epirotes and their right to self-determination. under the legal authority of Albania. However, the agreement never materialized, as the Albanian government collapsed in August, andPrince William of Wied, who was appointed leader of the country in February, returned to Germany in September.
Shortly after the outbreak of World War I, in October 1914, the Kingdom of Greece recaptured the region. However, the ambiguous attitude of the Central Powers on Greek issues during the Great War, led France and Italy to the joint occupation of Epirus in September 1916. At the end of World War I, however, the Agreement of Tittoni with Venizelos foresaw the annexation of the region to Greece. Eventually, Greece's military involvement with Mustafa Kemal's Turkey worked in the interest of Albania, which permanently annexed the region on 9 November 1920.
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At the end of World War I (1914–1918), attention of theAllied Powers (Entente Powers) focused on the partition of the territory of theOttoman Empire. As part of theTreaty of London (1915), by which Italy left theTriple Alliance (with Germany and Austria-Hungary) and joined France, Great Britain and Russia in theTriple Entente, Italy was promised theDodecanese and, if the partition of the Ottoman Empire were to occur, land inAnatolia includingAntalya and surrounding provinces presumably including Smyrna.[33] But in later 1915, as an inducement to enter the war, British Foreign SecretaryEdward Grey in private discussion withEleftherios Venizelos, the Greek Prime Minister at the time, promised large parts of the Anatolian coast to Greece, including Smyrna.[33] Venizelos resigned from his position shortly after this communication, but when he had formally returned to power in June 1917, Greece entered the war on the side of the Entente.[34]
On 30 October 1918, theArmistice of Mudros was signed between the Entente powers and the Ottoman Empire ending theOttoman front of World War I. Great Britain, Greece, Italy, France, and the United States began discussing what the treaty provisions regarding the partition of Ottoman territory would be, negotiations which resulted in theTreaty of Sèvres. These negotiations began in February 1919 and each country had distinct negotiating preferences about Smyrna. The French, who had large investments in the region, took a position for territorial integrity of a Turkish state that would include the zone of Smyrna. The British were at loggerheads over the issue with theWar Office andIndia Office promoting the territorial integrity idea and Prime MinisterDavid Lloyd George and theForeign Office, headed byLord Curzon, opposed to this suggestion and wanting Smyrna to be under separate administration.[35] The Italian position was that Smyrna was rightfully their possession and so the diplomats would refuse to make any comments when Greek control over the area was discussed.[36] The Greek government, pursuing Venizelos' support for theMegali Idea (to bring areas with a majority Greek population or with historical or religious ties to Greece under the control of the Greek state) and supported by Lloyd George, began a large propaganda effort to promote their claim to Smyrna including establishing a mission under the foreign minister in the city.[36] Moreover, the Greek claim over the Smyrna area (which appeared to have a clear Greek majority, although exact percentages varied depending on the sources) were supported byWoodrow Wilson'sFourteen Points which emphasized the right to autonomous development for minorities in Anatolia.[37] In negotiations, despite French and Italian objections, by the middle of February 1919 Lloyd George shifted the discussion to how Greek administration would work and not whether Greek administration would happen.[35] To further this aim, he brought in a set of experts, includingArnold J. Toynbee, to discuss how the zone of Smyrna would operate and what its impacts would be on the population.[36] Following this discussion, in late February 1919, Venezilos appointedAristeidis Stergiadis, a close political ally, the High Commissioner of Smyrna (appointed over political riserThemistoklis Sofoulis).[36]
In April 1919, the Italians landed and took over Antalya and began showing signs of moving troops towards Smyrna.[35] During the negotiations at about the same time, the Italian delegation walked out when it became clear thatFiume (Rijeka) would not be given to them in the peace outcome.[33] Lloyd George saw an opportunity to break the impasse over Smyrna with the absence of the Italian delegation and, according to Jensen, he "concocted a report that an armed uprising of Turkish guerrillas in the Smyrna area was seriously endangering the Greek and other Christian minorities."[33] Both to protect local Christians and also to limit increasing Italian action in Anatolia, French Prime MinisterGeorges Clemenceau and U.S. PresidentWoodrow Wilson supported a Greek military occupation of Smyrna.[33] Although Smyrna would be occupied by Greek troops, authorized by the Allies, the Allies did not agree that Greece would take sovereignty over the territory until further negotiations settled this issue.[33] The Italian delegation acquiesced to this outcome and the Greek occupation was authorized.
Greek troops evacuated Smyrna on 9 September 1922 and a small allied force of British entered the city to prevent looting and violence. The next day, Mustafa Kemal, leading a number of troops, entered the city and was greeted by enthusiastic Turkish crowds.[33] Atrocities by Turkish troops and irregulars against the Greek andArmenian population occurred immediately after the takeover.[38][39] Most notably, Chrysostomos, the Orthodox bishop, was lynched by a mob of Turkish citizens. A few days afterward, a fire destroyed the Greek and Armenian quarters of the city, while the Turkish and Jewish quarters remained undamaged.[40] Culpability for the fire is blamed on all ethnic groups and clear blame remains elusive.[33] On the Turkish side—but not among Greeks—the events are known as the "Liberation of İzmir".
The evacuation of Smyrna by Greek troops ended most of the large scale fighting in the Greco-Turkish war which was formally ended with an Armistice and a final treaty on 24 July 1923 with the Treaty of Lausanne. Much of the Greek population was included in the 1923population exchange between Greece and Turkey resulting in migration to Greece and elsewhere.[36]
Under theTreaty between Great Britain and [Austria, Prussia and] Russia, respecting the Ionian Islands (signed in Paris on 5 November 1815), as one of the treaties signed during thePeace of Paris (1815), Britain obtained a protectorate over the Ionian Islands, and underArticle VIII of the treaty theAustrian Empire was granted the same trading privileges with the Islands as Britain.[41] As agreed inArticle IV of the treaty a "New Constitutional Charter for the State" was drawn up and was formalised with the ratification of the "Maitland constitution" on 26 August 1817, which created a federation of the seven islands, with Lieutenant-GeneralSir Thomas Maitland its first "Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian Islands".[citation needed]
A few years laterGreek nationalist groups started to form. Although their energy in the early years was directed to supporting their fellow Greek revolutionaries in therevolution against the Ottoman Empire, they switched their focus toenosis with Greece following their independence. TheParty of Radicals (Greek: Κόμμα των Ριζοσπαστών) founded in 1848 as a pro-enosis political party. In September 1848 there were skirmishes with theBritish garrison inArgostoli andLixouri onKefalonia, which led to a certain level relaxation in the enforcement of the protectorate's laws, andfreedom of the press as well. The island's populace did not hide their growing demands for enosis, and newspapers on the islands frequently published articles criticising British policies in the protectorate. On 15 August in 1849, another rebellion broke out, which was quashed byHenry George Ward, who proceeded to temporarily imposemartial law.[42]
On 26 November 1850, the Radical MP John Detoratos Typaldos proposed in the Ionian parliament the resolution for the enosis of the Ionian Islands with Greece which was signed by Gerasimos Livadas, Nadalis Domeneginis, George Typaldos, Frangiskos Domeneginis, Ilias Zervos Iakovatos, Iosif Momferatos, Telemachus Paizis, Ioannis Typaldos, Aggelos Sigouros-Dessyllas, Christodoulos Tofanis. In 1862, the party split into two factions, the "United Radical Party" and the "Real Radical Party". During the period of British rule,William Ewart Gladstone visited the islands and recommended their reunion with Greece, to the chagrin of the British government.[citation needed]
On 29 March 1864, representatives of Great Britain, Greece, France, and Russia signed theTreaty of London, pledging the transfer of sovereignty to Greece upon ratification; this was meant to bolster the reign of the newly installed KingGeorge I of Greece. Thus, on 28 May, by proclamation of the Lord High Commissioner, the Ionian Islands were united with Greece.[43]
Since the beginning of the 2010s, anonline social movement has been launched to awaken the Greek consciousness of the inhabitants ofSouthern Italy and also to express an opinion that highlights the desire of a part of the inhabitants of the south for secession from the state of Italy, its union with the Hellenism of theMediterranean Sea (and re-establishment ofMagna Graecia and theKingdom of the Two Sicilies).[44]
Through pages mainly on Facebook, historical issues are highlighted that have more to do with the Greek presence in Italy that begins with the migration of the Greek diaspora in the 8th century BC., the linguistic minority, known as Griko inCalabria,Apulia andMessina, the modern day Greeks of Italy and in general the inhabitants of the south who call themselves Great-Greeks (MagnoGreci).[45]
The largest Facebook page highlighting the specific issues called "Stato Magna Grecia - Due Sicilie", has over 270,000 followers, mainly Italians but also several Greeks and Griko, expressing the need for the secession of Sicily and the whole of Southern Italy, the so-called Mezzogiorno and itsenosis with Greece and Cyprus. This page and other pages based in Italy highlight the achievements of ancient Magna Graecia and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies as well as the close relations that the people of Southern Italy have with Greece.[46]
According to the administrators of these Facebook pages, the unification of Italy, in whichGaribaldi's campaign in Sicily in 1860 played a decisive role, for many inhabitants of southern Italy more represents the beginning of a form of colonialism while for them the union was made on the terms of the Italian north, which essentially imposed its own powers, its language, its culture, the Italian South was more economically developed than the North, but this trend was reversed after unification. Thus emerge views interwoven with neo-bourbonism (Italian: Neoborbonismo) which is a form of nostalgia for the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, a term coined in 1960 and born with the creation of the separatist movements in Italy while experiencing a significant increase in popularity around 2011 during the celebrations of the 150th anniversary of the Unification of Italy, the same decade of prominence of the movement of the re-Hellenization and independence of Greater Greece. The Neo-Bourbonist movement is supported by small political movements, amateur websites, leading the Italian newspaperCorriere del Mezzogiorno to report that "Neo-Bourbon revanchism is in vogue in recent years..."[47]
On a political level, the administrators of the said Magna Graecia - Two Sicilies pages urged followers during the 2023 national elections in Greece to vote for political parties supporting the demand for independence of SouthItaly and union with Greece.[46]
According to Italian media, the Italian political party Insorgenza Magnogreca led by Luigi Lista and based inNaples presents itself as a movement that represents, among others, the Greek identity of Southern Italy.[48][49] The association "Comitato provincia della Magna Graecia" chaired by Domenico Mazza was created with the aim of promoting the union of all the regions of South Italy into a new separate great region of Italy and developing a stronger connection with Greece.[50]
In Greece, the far-right party "Hellenic world empire" (Ελληνική Κοσμοκρατορία), which officially seeks the secession of the Italian south, participated in the 2019 European elections in a joint descent with thePopular Orthodox Rally party and the Patriotic Radical Union party of the independent MEP, elected with theGolden Dawn ofEleftherios Synadinos gathered the 1.23%.[51]
According to Greek media, the inhabitants of South Italy already have their own flag with the emblem of the ancient Greektriskelion symbolizing the oracle ofDelphi byPythia that determined where the Greek colonies should be established in Italy, as well as an informal national anthem, created by the Greek sopranoSonia Theodoridou.[44][52]
ISBN 1-85043-580-4" "In 1828, modern Greece's first president, Count Kapodistria, called for union of Cyprus with Greece, and various minor uprising took place.
Kemal's triumphant entry into Smyrna... as Greek and Armenian inhabitants were raped, mutilated, and murdered.
As the refugees crowded into the city, massacres, rape and looting, mainly but not exclusively by the irregulars, became the unspoken order of the day... Finally, the streets and houses of Smyrna were soaked in petrol... and on 13 September the city was set alight.
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