 Landsat 8satellite image of Enewetak Atoll. Thecrater formed by theIvy Mikenuclear test can be seen near the north cape of the atoll, with the smallerCastle Nectar crater adjoining it. | |
 Map of theMarshall Islands highlighting the Enewetak Atoll in red | |
  Enewetak | |
| Geography | |
|---|---|
| Location | North Pacific |
| Coordinates | 11°30′N162°20′E / 11.500°N 162.333°E /11.500; 162.333 |
| Archipelago | Ralik |
| Total islands | 40 |
| Area | 5.85 km2 (2.26 sq mi)[1] |
| Highest elevation | 5 m (16 ft) |
| Administration | |
| Demographics | |
| Population | 296 (2021)[1] |
| Ethnic groups | Marshallese |
Enewetak Atoll (/ɛˈniːwəˌtɔːk,ˌɛnɪˈwiːtɔːk/;[2] also spelledEniwetok Atoll or sometimesEniewetok;Marshallese:Ānewetak,[ænʲeːwɛːdˠɑk], orĀne-wātak,[ænʲeːwæːdˠɑk];[3] known to the Japanese asBrown Atoll orBrown Island;Japanese:ブラウン環礁) is a largecoral atoll of 40 islands in thePacific Ocean and with its 296 people (as of 2021)[1] forms a legislative district of theRalik Chain of theMarshall Islands. With aland area total less than 5.85 square kilometers (2.26 sq mi),[1] it is no higher than 5 meters (16.4 ft) and surrounds a deep centrallagoon, 80 kilometers (50 mi) incircumference. It is the second-westernmost atoll of the Ralik Chain and is 305 kilometers (190 mi) west fromBikini Atoll.
It was held by the Japanese from 1914 until itscapture by theUnited States in February 1944 duringWorld War II, then becameNaval Base Eniwetok.Nuclear testing by theUS totaling the equivalent of over 30 megatons ofTNT took place during theCold War; in 1977–1980, a concrete dome (the Runit Dome) was built onRunit Island to depositradioactive soil and debris.[4]
The Runit Dome is deteriorating and could be breached by a typhoon, though the sediments in the lagoon are even more radioactive than those which are contained.[5]
TheU.S. government referred to the atoll as "Eniwetok" until 1974, when it changed its official spelling to "Enewetak" (along with many other Marshall Islandsplace names, to more properly reflect theirpronunciation by theMarshall Islanders[6]).
Enewetak Atoll formed atop aseamount. The seamount was formed in the lateCretaceous.[7] This seamount is now about 1,400 meters (4,600 ft) below sea level.[8] It is made ofbasalt, and its depth is due to a generalsubsidence of the entire region and not because oferosion.[9]
Enewetak has ameanelevation above sea level of 3 meters (9.8 ft).[10]
Humans have inhabited the atoll since about 1,000 B.C.[11]
The islands were first settled by Austronesian islanders.
The first European colonizers to Enewetak, Spanish explorerÁlvaro de Saavedra Cerón, arrived on 10 October 1529.[12][13] He called the island "Los Jardines" (The Gardens). In 1794, sailors aboard the British merchantsloopWalpole called the islands "Brown's Range" (thus, the Japanese name "Brown Atoll"). It was visited by about a dozen ships before the establishment of the German colony of theMarshall Islands in 1885.[14]
With the rest of the Marshalls, Enewetak was captured by theImperial Japanese Navy in 1914, during World War I and mandated to theEmpire of Japan by theLeague of Nations in 1920. The Japanese administered the island under theSouth Seas Mandate, but mostly left affairs in hands of traditional local leaders until the start of World War II. The atoll, together with other parts of Marshall Islands located to the west of 164°E, was placed under the governance ofPohnpei district during the Japanese administration period, separately from the rest of the Marshall Islands.[15]
In November 1942, the Japanese built an airfield on Engebi Island. As they used it only for refueling planes betweenTruk and islands to the east, no aviation personnel were stationed there and the island had only token defenses. When theGilberts fell to the United States, theImperial Japanese Army assigned defense of the atoll to the1st Amphibious Brigade, formed from the 3rd Independent Garrison, which had previously been stationed inManchukuo. The 1st Amphibious Brigade arrived on January 4, 1944. Some 2,586 of its 3,940 men were left to defend Eniwetok Atoll, supplemented by aviation personnel, civilian employees, and laborers. However, they were unable to finish the fortifications before the American attack came in February. During the ensuingBattle of Eniwetok, the Americans captured Enewetak in a five-day amphibious operation. Fighting mainly took place on Engebi Islet, site of the most important Japanese installation, although some combat occurred on the main islet of Enewetak itself and on Parry Island, where there was a Japanese seaplane base.
Following its capture, the anchorage at Enewetok became a majorUS Naval Advance Base withService Squadron 4 and Service Squadron 10 stationed in the lagoon. The daily average of ships present during the first half of July 1944 was 488; during the second half of July, the daily average number of ships at Enewetak was 283.[16] Naval Base Eniwetok was part of the vastNaval Base Marshall Islands. US NavySeabees of the 110th Naval Construction Battalion arrived on February 21 and 27 to begin construction of Stickell Field.[17] It had two taxiways and a 6,800-by-400-foot (2,070 by 120 m) runway.[17] In June 1945, the 67th CB arrived to build a 35,000 man recreation center to be turned over to CBMU 608.[17]
In 1950,John C. Woods, who executed theNaziwar criminals convicted at theNuremberg Trials, was accidentally electrocuted there.
After the end of World War II, Enewetak came under the control of the United States as part of theTrust Territory of the Pacific Islands, until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986. During its tenure, the United States evacuated the local residents many times, often involuntarily.[citation needed] The atoll was used fornuclear testing, as part of thePacific Proving Grounds. Before testing commenced, the U.S. exhumed the bodies of United States servicemen killed in the Battle of Enewetak and returned them to the United States to be re-buried by their families. 43[a] nuclear tests were fired at Enewetak from 1948 to 1958.[20]
The firsthydrogen bomb test, code-namedIvy Mike, occurred in late 1952 as part ofOperation Ivy; it vaporized the islet ofElugelab, It also created two new elements :Fermium andEinsteinium. This test includedB-17 Flying Fortress drones to fly through theradioactive cloud to test onboard samples. B-17 mother ships controlled the drones while flying within visual distance of them. In all, 16 to 20 B-17s took part in this operation, of which half were controlling aircraft and half were drones. To examine the explosion clouds of the nuclear bombs in 1957/58, several rockets (mostly fromrockoons) were launched. One USAF airman Jimmy Robinson was lost at sea during the tests. Robinson'sF-84 Thunderjet crashed and sank 3.5 miles (5.6 km) short of the island. Robinson's body was never recovered.[21][22][23]
A radiological survey of Enewetak was conducted from 1972 to 1973.[24] In 1977, the United States military begandecontamination of Enewetak and other islands. During the three-year, US$100 million cleanup process, the military mixed more than 80,000 cubic meters (100,000 cu yd) of contaminated soil and debris[25] from the islands withPortland cement and buried it in an atomic blast crater on the northern end of the atoll'sRunit Island.[26][b] The material was placed in the 9.1-meter (30 ft) deep, 110-meter (360 ft) wide crater created by the May 5, 1958, "Cactus" nuclear weapons test. A dome composed of 358 concrete panels, each 46 centimeters (18 in) thick, was constructed over the material. The final cost of the cleanup project was US$239 million.[25] The United States government declared the southern and western islands in the atoll safe for habitation in 1980,[c] and residents of Enewetak returned that same year.[27] The military members who participated in that cleanup mission are suffering from many health issues, but the U.S. Government refused to provide health coverage[28] until 2022 with the passage of theHonoring our PACT Act.[29]
The 2000 environmental restoration award included funds for additional cleanup of radioactivity on Enewetak. Rather than scrape the topsoil off, replace it with clean topsoil, and create another radioactive waste repository dome at some site on the atoll (a project estimated to cost US$947 million), most areas still contaminated on Enewetak were treated withpotassium.[d] Soil that could not be effectively treated for human use was removed and used as fill for acauseway connecting the two main islands of the atoll (Enewetak and Parry). The cost of the potassium decontamination project was US$103.3 million.[30]
A report by the USCongressional Research Service projects that the majority of the atoll will be fit for human habitation by 2026–2027, after nuclear decay, de-contamination andenvironmental remediation efforts create sufficient dose reductions.[31] However, in November 2017, theAustralian Broadcasting Corporation reported that rising sea levels caused by climate change are seeping inside the dome, causing radioactive material to leak out.[32]
Section 177 of the 1983Compact of Free Association between the governments of the United States and the Marshall Islands[33] establishes a process for Marshallese to make a claim against the United States government as a result of damage and injury caused by nuclear testing. That same year, an agreement was signed to implement Section 177, which established a US$150 million trust fund. The fund was intended to generate US$18 million a year, which would be payable to claimants on an agreed-upon schedule. If the US$18 million a year generated by the fund was not enough to cover claims, theprincipal of the fund could be used.[34][30] AMarshall IslandsNuclear Claims Tribunal was established to adjudicate claims. In 2000, the tribunal made a compensation award to the people of Enewetak consisting of US$107.8 million for environmental restoration; US$244 million in damages to cover economic losses caused by loss of access and use of the atoll; and US$34 million for hardship and suffering.[30] In addition, as of the end of 2008, another US$96.658 million in individual damage awards were made. Only US$73.526 million of the individual claims award has been paid, however, and no new awards were made between the end of 2008 and May 2010.[30] Due to stock market losses, payments rates that have outstripped fund income, and other issues, the fund was nearly exhausted, as of May 2010, and unable to make any additional awards or payments.[30] A lawsuit by Marshallese arguing that "changed circumstances" made Nuclear Claims Tribunal unable to make just compensation was dismissed by theSupreme Court of the United States in April 2010.[35]
Marshall Islands Public School System operates Enewetak Elementary School.[36]Marshall Islands High School onMajuro serves the community.[37]
Men from the110th Naval Construction Battalion arrived on Eniwetok between 21 and 27 February 1944 and began clearing the island for construction of a bomber airfield. A 2,100-meter (6,900 ft) by 120-meter (390 ft) runway with taxiways and supporting facilities was built. The first plane landed on 11 March. By 5 April the first operational bombing mission was conducted.[38]The base was later named for LieutenantJohn H. Stickell.[39][40]
In mid-September 1944 operations atWrigley Airfield on Engebi Island were transferred to Eniwetok.[41]
US Navy and Marine units based at Eniwetok included:
The airstrip is now abandoned and its surface partially covered by sand.
TheImperial Japanese Navy had developed a seaplane base on Parry Island. Following its capture on 22 February, Seabee's from the 110th Naval Construction Battalion expanded the base, building a coral-surfaced parking area and shops for minor aircraft and engine overhaul. A marine ways was installed on a Japanese pier and boat-repair shops were also erected.[38]
US Navy and Marine units based at Parry Island included:
| Series | Start Date | End Date | Count | Yield Range | Total Yield |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sandstone | 14 April 1948 | 14 May 1948 | 3 | 18 - 49kilotons | 104 kilotons |
| Greenhouse | 7 April 1951 | 4 May 1951 | 4 | 45.5-225 kilotons | 396.5 kilotons |
| Ivy | 31 October 1952 | 15 November 1952 | 2 | 500 kilotons - 10.4 megatons | 10.9 megatons |
| Castle | 13 May 1954 | 13 May 1954 | 1 | 110 kilotons - 15 megatons | 48 megatons |
| Redwing | 4 May 1956 | 21 July 1956 | 11 | 190 tons - 1.9 megatons | ~2.61 megatons |
| Hardtack I | 5 April 1958 | 18 August 1958 | 22 | Zero - 8.9 megatons | 16.1 megatons |
| Total (on Enewetak) | 43[31] | Approx 31.8 megatons (almost 6% of total test yield worldwide) |
| Test shot | Date | Location | Yield |
|---|---|---|---|
| X-Ray | 18:17 14 April 1948 (GMT) | Enjebi Islet | 37 kt |
| Yoke | 18:09 30 April 1948 (GMT) | Aomon Islet | 49 kt |
| Zebra | 18:04 14 May 1948 (GMT) | Runit Islet | 18 kt |
| Test shot | Date | Location | Yield |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dog | 18:34 7 April 1951 (GMT) | Runit Islet | 81 kt |
| Easy | 18:26 20 April 1951 (GMT) | Enjebi Islet | 47 kt |
| George | 21:30 8 May 1951 (GMT) | Eberiru Islet | 225 kt |
| Item | 18:17 24 May 1951 (GMT) | Enjebi Islet | 45.5 kt |
| Test shot | Date | Location | Yield |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mike | 19:14:59.4 31 October 1952 (GMT) | Elugelab Islet | 10.4 Mt |
| King | 23:30 15 November 1952 (GMT) | Runit Islet | 500 kt |
| Test shot | Date | Location | Yield |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nectar | 18:00 13 May 1954 UTC | Off Bogon Islet near Ivy Mike crater | 1.69 Mt |
| Test shot | Date | Location | Yield |
|---|---|---|---|
| Lacrosse | 18:25 4 May 1956 (GMT) | Runit Islet | 40 kt |
| Yuma | 19:56 27 May 1956 (GMT) | Aomon Islet | 0.19 kt |
| Erie | 18:15 30 May 1956 (GMT) | Runit Islet | 14.9 kt |
| Seminole | 00:55 6 June 1956 (GMT) | Bogon Islet | 13.7 kt |
| Blackfoot | 18:26 11 June 1956 (GMT) | Runit Islet | 8 kt |
| Kickapoo | 23:26 13 June 1956 (GMT) | Aomon Islet | 1.49 kt |
| Osage | 01:14 16 June 1956 (GMT) | Runit Islet | 1.7 kt |
| Inca | 21:26 21 June 1956 (GMT) | Rujoru Islet | 15.2 kt |
| Mohawk | 18:06 2 July 1956 (GMT) | Eberiru Islet | 360 kt |
| Apache | 18:06 8 July 1956 (GMT) | nearIvy Mike crater | 1.9 Mt |
| Huron | 18:12 21 July 1956 (GMT) | Off Flora Islet | 250 kt |
| Test shot | Date | Location | Yield |
|---|---|---|---|
| Yucca | 18:15 28 April 1958 (GMT) | 157 km N of Eniwetok Atoll[e] | 1.7 kt |
| Cactus | 18:15 5 May 1958 (GMT) | Runit Islet | 18 kt |
| Butternut | 18:15 11 May 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Atoll | 81 kt |
| Koa | 18:30 12 May 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Atoll | 1370 kt |
| Wahoo | 01:30 16 May 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Atoll | 9 kt |
| Holly | 18:30 20 May 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Atoll | 5.9 kt |
| Yellowwood | 2:00 26 May 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Lagoon | 330 kt |
| Magnolia | 18:00 26 May 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Atoll | 57 kt |
| Tobacco | 02:50 30 May 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Atoll | 11.6 kt |
| Rose | 18:45 2 June 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Atoll | 15 kt |
| Umbrella | 23:15 8 June 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Lagoon | 8 kt |
| Walnut | 18:30 14 June 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Atoll | 1.45 kt |
| Linden | 03:00 18 June 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Atoll | 11 kt |
| Elder | 18:30 27 June 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Atoll | 880 kt |
| Oak | 19:30 28 June 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Lagoon | 8.9 Mt |
| Sequoia | 18:30 1 July 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Atoll | 5.2 kt |
| Dogwood | 18:30 5 July 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Atoll | 397 kt |
| Scaevola | 04:00 14 July 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Atoll | 0 kt |
| Pisonia | 23:00 17 July 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Atoll | 255 kt |
| Olive | 18:15 22 July 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Atoll | 202 kt |
| Pine | 20:30 26 July 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Atoll | 2000 kt |
| Quince | 02:15 6 August 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Atoll | 0 kt |
| Fig | 04:00 18 August 1958 (GMT) | Eniwetok Atoll | 0.02 kt |
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From 1958 through 1960 the United States installed theMissile Impact Location System (MILS) in the Navy managed Pacific Missile Range, later the Air Force managedWestern Range, to localize the splash downs of test missile nose cones. MILS was developed and installed by the same entities that had completed the first phase of the Atlantic and U.S. West CoastSOSUS systems. A MILS installation, consisting of both a target array for precision location and a broad ocean area system for good positions outside the target area, was installed at Eniwetok as part of the system supportingIntercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) tests. Other Pacific MILS shore terminals were at theMarine Corps Air Station Kaneohe Bay supportingIntermediate Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM) tests with impact areas northeast of Hawaii and the other ICBM test support systems atMidway Island andWake Island.[57][58][59]
This article incorporatespublic domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency
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