According to some scholars, anational identity of the English as the people or ethnic group dominant inEngland can be traced to theAnglo-Saxon period. For Lindy Brady and Marc Morris,Bede'sEcclesiastical History of the English People and the construction ofOffa's Dyke exemplifies the establishment of such an identity as early as AD 731, becoming a national identity with the unification of theKingdom of England in the ninth and tenth centuries, and changing status once again in the eleventh century after theNorman Conquest, whenEnglishry came to be the status of the subject indigenous population.^[1][2] Similarly,Adrian Hastings considers England to be the oldest example of a "mature nation", and links the development of this nationhood to theChristian Church and spread of written popular languages to existing ethnic groups.^[3]

In contrast,John Breuilly rejects the notion these examples constituted "national" identity and criticizes the assumption that continued usage of a term such as 'English' means continuity in its meaning.^[4]Patrick J. Geary agrees, arguing names were adapted to different circumstances by different powers and could convince people of continuity, even if radical discontinuity was the lived reality.^[5] Geary also rejects the conflation of early medieval and contemporary group identities as a myth, arguing it is a mistake to conclude continuity based on the recurrence of names and that historians fail to recognize the differences between earlier ways of perceiving group identities and more contemporary attitudes, stating they are "trapped in the very historical process we are attempting to study".^[6] Krishan Kumar also points out that Bede's 'English' did not refer to a unified people, but rather "still diverse groups of Angles, Saxons, Jutes and others with distinct ethnicities".^[7]

From the eighteenth century, the terms 'English' and 'British' began to be seen as interchangeable to many of the English.^[8] While the officialUnited Kingdom census does record ethnicity, English/Welsh/Scottish/Northern Irish/British is a single tick-box under the "White" heading for the answer to the ethnicity question asked in England and Wales (while making the distinction ofwhite Irish).^[9][10]

English identity emerged from theAnglo-Saxon period after the fall ofRoman Britain, with the unification of various kingdoms under figures likeAlfred the Great in the 9th century. TheNorman Conquest in 1066 layered Norman influences onto this Germanic base, shaping the language, governance, and culture. Over centuries, events likeMagna Carta (1215), theEnglish Reformation (16th century), and theIndustrial Revolution (18th-19th centuries) fostered a narrative of individualism, parliamentary democracy, and innovation as hallmarks of Englishness. Although Englishness andBritishness are used synonymously in some contexts,^[11] the two terms are not identical, and the relation of each to the other is complex. Englishness is often a response to different national identities within Britain, such asScottishness,Irishness,Welshness andCornishness.^[12]

Culturally, English identity is often linked to symbols and traditions: theEnglish language (a globallingua franca), tea-drinking, pub culture,Shakespeare, a dry sense of humour, queuing etiquette, cream teas, and sports likecricket,football andrugby. Though they are British institutions, themonarchy and theBBC are often tied to English identity owing to their geographic bases in England. The countryside with its rolling hills, villages, and pubs also plays a big role in the romanticised self-image, contrasting with urban centres like London, a global melting pot. Socially, English identity is tied to values like "fair play," politeness, understatement, stoicism (the "stiff upper lip"), and parliamentary democracy. Events like theLast Night of the Proms orGuy Fawkes Night also contribute to a shared cultural fabric, though they are not unique to England.

Sometimes Englishness is thought to be encapsulated in terms of a particular relation to sport:fair play, for instance. Arguably, England's "national games" are football and, particularly,cricket. As cricket historian Dominic Malcolm argues, the link between cricket and England's national identity became solidified through literature. Works such asJames Love'sCricket: an heroic poem andMary Mitford'sOur Village, along withNyren'sThe Cricketers of My Time andPycroft'sThe Cricket Field, purported to identify the characteristics of cricket with the notional characteristics of English society, such as pragmatism, integrity, and independence.^[13]

English identity has shifted significantly in recent centuries. TheBritish Empire’s peak saw Englishness intertwined with imperial pride, but its decline afterWorld War II prompted a reevaluation. England’s population is diverse, with immigration from former colonies, Europe, and beyond reshaping urban centres like London, Manchester, and Liverpool. This has led to tensions and discussions about what "Englishness" means in a globalised, multiethnic society. Some associate it with rural nostalgia while others see it as urban, dynamic, and cosmopolitan.

TheUK census began including questions regarding national identity in 2011. The question on the census, in the section on "National identity, ethnic group, language and religion", was the following:

The 2021 census saw a decline in English people identifying as "English" and a rise in English people identifying as "British" from the 2011 census. Though various potential reasons for this were raised, such as the effects ofBrexit in the interim, theOffice for National Statistics largely attributed the effect to the answers being shuffled - British was raised to the top of the list.

TheNational Centre for Social Research, a British independent social research institute stated in 2024 that the idea of British ancestry was becoming less tied to place of birth.^[14]

In 2018, theBBC conducted a survey to interrogate the public's English identity. They found that 80% people living in England identify "strongly" as English, and 82% strongly identify as British.^[15]

Though they found that those identifying as English was largely consistent among age groups, the amount of pride people held in that identity varied. 45% of younger people responded that they were proud of their English identity, as opposed to 72% of older people.

• Culture of England
• English nationalism

• Breward, Christopher; Conekin, Conekin; Cox, Caroline (2002).The Englishness of English dress. Berg Publishers.ISBN 978-1-85973-528-2.
• Siobhain Bly, Calkin (2009).Saracens and the Making of English Identity: The Auchinleck Manuscript. Taylor and Francis.ISBN 978-0-415-80309-0.
• Colls, Robert (1987).Englishness: politics and culture 1880-1920. Routledge.ISBN 978-0-7099-4562-8.
• Featherstone, Simon (2009).Englishness: twentieth century popular culture and the forming of English identity. Edinburgh University Press.ISBN 978-0-7486-2365-5.
• Harris, Stephen J. (2003).Race and Ethnicity in Anglo-Saxon Literature. Taylor & Francis.
• Helmreich, Anne (2002).The English garden and national identity. Modern architecture and cultural identity. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-521-59293-2.
• Langford, Paul (2001).Englishness identified: manners and character, 1650-1850. Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-19-924640-3.
• Rogers, David; McLeod, John (2004).The revision of Englishness. Manchester University Press.ISBN 978-0-7190-6972-7.
• Spiering, Menno (1992).Englishness: foreigners and images of national identity in postwar literature. Rodopi.ISBN 978-90-5183-436-9.
• MacPhee, Graham; Prem Poddar (2010). MacPhee, Graham and Prem Poddar (ed.).Empire and After: Englishness in Postcolonial Perspective. New York: Berghahn Books. pp. 1–25.ISBN 978-1-84545-320-6.

• Anthony, Andrew (30 June 2004)."I'm English - but what does that mean?".The Guardian.ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved2 August 2023.
• Clarkson, Jeremy (25 November 2007)."We've been robbed of our Englishness".The Sunday Times. Retrieved10 February 2011.
• Glass, Bryan S (24 March 2005)."English Identity in the Wake of Devolution". Southwestern Political Science Association. Archived fromthe original on 30 April 2009. Retrieved10 February 2011.
• Glass, Bryan S (7 April 2005)."The Devolution Gamble: State, Nation, and Identity in England". The Midwest Political Science Association. Retrieved10 February 2011.^{[permanent dead link]}
• Hill, Amelia (13 June 2004)."The English identity crisis: who do you think you are?".The Observer. Retrieved10 February 2011.
• Kenny, Michael (11 February 2010)."Englishness: the forbidden identity".The Guardian. Retrieved10 February 2011.
• Kumar, Krishan (2003).The making of English national identity(PDF). Cambridge cultural social studies. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-521-77736-0.
• Younge, Gary (28 June 2010)."England's identity crisis".The Guardian. Retrieved10 February 2011.

• Culture of England
• Society of England
• History of nationality
• National identities
• Politics of England
• English nationalism

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