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English adverbs arewords such asso,just,how,well,also,very,even,only,really, andwhy thatheadadverb phrases, and whose most typical members function as modifiers in verb phrases and clauses, along withadjective and adverb phrases.[1][2] The category is highly heterogeneous,[3]: 563 but a large number of the very typical members are derived from adjectives + thesuffix-ly (e.g.,actually,probably,especially, &finally) and modify any word, phrase or clause other than a noun.[3]: 57 Adverbs form an openlexical category in English.[4] They do not typically license or function as complements in other phrases.Semantically, they are again highly various, denoting manner, degree, duration, frequency, domain, modality, and much more.[3]: 576 [5]: 479
One of the first records we have of the wordadverb used in English is from c1425.[6]
as
as
twyes
twice
4
four
is
is
8.
eight.
now
Now
here
here
ben
are
þe
the
2
two
nombers,
numbers,
of
of
þe
the
quych
which
too
two
nowmbres
numbers
on
one
is
is
betokened
betokened
be
by
an
an
aduerbe,
adverb,
þe
the
quych
which
is
is
þe
the
worde
word
twyes
twice
as twyes 4 is 8. now here ben þe 2 nombers, of þe quych too nowmbres on is betokened be an aduerbe, þe quych is þe worde twyes
as twice four is eight. Now here are the two numbers, of the which two numbers one is betokened by an adverb, the which is the word twice
"as in twice 4 is 8. Now, here there are the two numbers, the first of which (i.e., 2) is represented by the adverb 'twice'."
William Bullokar wrote theearliest grammar of English, published in 1586. It includes a chapter on adverbs. His definition follows:
An adverb is a part of speech joined with a verb or participle to declare their signification more expressly by such adverb: as,come hither if they wilt go forth, sometimes with an adjective: as,thus broad: & sometimes joined with another adverb: as,how soon, as speedily, yet both those depending upon some verb or participle always of an acting, passing, or being signification. which you that the easier know to be an adverb, by asking the question, what, upon it, whereunto a verb, participle or adjective answers single or in sentence. But if a substantive answers to the question, be sure that it is a preposition, for an adverb governs not any case nor is governed of any word.[7] (p. 365; orthography has been modernized)
The idea that adverbs modify only verbs is traditional to grammars of Greek and Latin, and the idea is common in English grammar up to at least 1775.[8]: 448 When it became broadly accepted that adverbs modified more than verbs, grammarians struggled to delimit the extent of their range.[8]: 449
In 1801, Mercy observes that “the adverb may be known by interrogating with the adverbhow” (1801: 13)
In 1784, John Hunter made the argument that many words that had sometimes been categorized as adverbs were, in fact,prepositions.
ALTHOUGH all these uses of the word TO are really one and the same, differing in nothing but this, that the object governed by it is, in some of them,expressed and, in others,notexpressed; yet the grammarians have considered them as different, and have classed TO, in the one case, with the Prepositions, and, in the other, with the Conjunctions, or with the Adverbs.[9]: 116
This idea was taken up by later grammarians, including Jespersen (1924)[10] andThe Cambridge grammar of the English language (2002).[3] On the other hand, dictionaries and ESL grammars have not adopted these ideas. For example,Merriam-Webster's Dictionary hasbefore as an adverb and as a preposition.[11]
Although most modern linguists accept the idea that lexical categories, such as adverb, cannot be defined semantically,Langacker argues that they can. Aarts summarizes this: "Verbs designate processes, whereas adjectives and adverbs are said to designate atemporal relations"[12][13]: 377
In the general case, adverbs do not function asattributive modifiers in anoun phrase, whereadjectives typically do. Conversely, adjectives do not function as modifiers in phrases apart from NPs. So you havethehappy child, but not*thehappily child andI will happily take it, but not*I willhappy take it.[a]
There are cases, though, in which an adverb may be a non-attributivemodifier in a noun phrase (NP), as inthe situationrecently in Spain.[1] Also, adverbs may modify whole NPs as witheven my neighbour.[4]: 123 Some adverbs also share pronunciation and spelling with adjectives (e.g.,very),[14] which makes such tests inconclusive; you can't rule out the possibility that a word is an adverb simply because a word spelled that way can be a modifier in an NP. Moreover, not all adjectives can be attributive.[15]
Morphologically, many adverbs are formed by adding-ly to an adjective (e.g.,easy→easily).[5]: 405 It's also the case, though, that some adjectives end in-ly (e.g.,friendly). There are also at least a few linguists who believe that-ly adverbs are simply aninflectional form of adjectives.[1][16]
There are two interrogative wordshow, an adverb and an adjective. The adjective is used only in question such ashow was it, where the expected response is an adjective phrase such asgood orvery interesting.[4]
(see alsoList of English prepositions § Intransitive prepositions)
Jespersen and others argue that many words traditionally taken to be adverbs are actually prepositions (see§ History of the concept in English). Many linguists agree with Jespersen, but most dictionaries and ESL grammars have not adopted these ideas. For example, Merriam-Webster's Dictionary hasbefore as an adverb, preposition, and conjunction.[11]
If the distinction is accepted, then it becomes important to distinguish between the two groups. A useful starting point is to recognize that many adverbs end in-ly, which clearly distinguishes them from prepositions. Another clarifying difference is that PPs commonly function as complements in abe VP (e.g.,the key'sin the car), while adverbs cannot normally do so (e.g., *the key'sinternally).[4]: 131 Another distinguishing features is that PPs may haveright orjust as a modifier. InStandard English,adverb phrases do not accept such modification (e.g.,it ranright up the tree [PP];*it ranright vertically [AdvP].)
"A number of conjunct adverbs, such asso andyet, resemble coordinators (coordinating conjunctions) both in being connectives and in having certain syntactic features."[5]: 442 One difference is that many adverbs are quite flexible in the location, while coordinators are not. Consider these examples, wherebut must appear between the clauses, buthowever can appear in any one of three different locations.
The difference can also be seen in punctuation. In (2), unlike (1), a comma is not possible after good.
AdvPs are usually quite simple in their internal structure. The following syntax tree shows an AdvP with theadverb phrasemore asmodifier and ahead adverbquickly.
Adverb phrases rarely licensecomplements as dependents, but it is possible, as inindependentlyof the others. "Only adverbs with the-ly suffix license direct complements."[3]: 571
Adverb phrases function as modifier in a clause or almost any kind of phrase, with the notable exception that they do not function as attributive modifier in noun phrases.[15] Individual adverbs, however, are usually not that flexible. For example, the adverbsstraight andright characteristically function as modifier in PPs but not in AdvP (e.g.,right up the tree but not *right vertically).[3]: 603 Similarly,very characteristically functions as modifier in AdjPs and AdvP but not in VPs (e.g.,very happy &very happily, but not *very enjoyed).[3]: 79 A small number of adverbs modify whole NPs. These includeeven,only, andalone.[17]: 27
AdvPs can function as complements to verbs such astreat as inthey treated mekindly.[3]: 224
There are two interrogative adverbs:how andwhy. Inindependent open interrogative clauses,why andhow are typically fronted.[4]: 159
A comprehensive grammar of the English language gives the following (non-exhaustive) list of semantic roles for "adverbials":[18] space, time, process, respect, contingency, modality, and degree.[5]: 475 The Cambridge grammar of the English language gives the following:
The wordsnot andnever are adverbs that participate in negation (seeEnglish clause syntax § Negation).[4]: 149 [17]: 423
The scope of an adverb is the part of an utterance with which it combines in meaning.[15] Adverb phrase placement affects the scope. Consider the difference in meaning between the following:
In the first example, the AdvP has scope over the whole clause, while in the second it has scope over only the NP in theby phrase.[3]: 436
Most adverbs are formed by adding-ly to an adjective (see above), but a few other adverb forming suffixes are productive. One example is-wise, which combines with a noun to form adverbs such asclockwise, andedgewise.[19] Many adverbs are simple bases. These includenot,well,fast,right, andvery.
Only a few adverbs inflect forgrade, that is have comparative and superlative forms. These are most common in one or two syllable adverbs derived from adjectives.[3]: 1584 Some examples areearly,earlier,earliest;quickly,quicklier,quickliest, andwell,better,best.